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THE
HAMADSHA

A Study in Moroccan
Ethnopsychiatry

\^ncent Crapanzano

Copyrighted material

THE HAMADSHA

A Study in Moroccan Ethnopsychiatry

By Vincent Crapanzano

The Hamadsha, members of a Moroccan
religious brotherhood that traces its spirit-
ual ancestry back to two Muslim saints of
the late seventeenth and early eighteenth
centuries, have achieved a certain notoriety
for their head-slashing and other acts of
self-mutilation while in entranced states.
Appealing largely to the illiterate Arab
masses, the Hamadsha brotherhood has
been regarded by scholars as a degenerate
offshoot of the Islamic mystical tradition.
Its beliefs and practices have been viewed
as an unstructured amalgam of beliefs and
practices of the ancient Mediterranean and
of sub-Saharan Africa with others of Islam.

Mr. Crapanzano sees Hamadsha beliefs
and practices as forming a structured sym-
bolic set interpretive of their experiential
world. Unlike many other North African
religious brotherhoods, the Hamadsha are
concerned less with mystical union with
Allah than with curing the demon-struck
and the demon-possessed. Saints, demons,
and a mana-likc quality called haraka, "char-
tered" by hagiographic legends and inte-
grated with the socio-economic organization
of the brotherhood, explain reactions that
the Western observer would often classify
as hysterical, depressive, or even schizo-
phrenic. Saints, demons, and baraka pro-
vide, however, more than an explanation of
these reactions; they are the very "lan-
guage" through which the reactions them-
selves are immediately formulated and the
cure effected. The cure itself — the dancing
of the patient through a deep trance in
which he becomes possessed and may even
mutilate himself —serves to incorporate him
into a cult, the Hamadsha brotherhood,
which provides him not only with opportu-
nities to discharge those tensions presum-
ably responsible for his illness but also with
a reinforced symbolic interpretation of his
existence.

VINCENT CRAPANZANO is a member
of the Department of Anthropology at
Princeton University.

THE yAMADSHA

uopyiiyhica maieiial

THE

HAMADSHA

A Study in Moroccan
Ethnopsychiatry

VINCENT CRAPANZANO

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY, LOS ANGELES, LONDON

Thl-s Ono

X0DP-25Z-2NCG

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY AND LOS ANGELES, CAUFCANIA

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LONDON, ENGLAND

ISBN: 0-520-02241-^

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 72-75529
FKINTED IN TUB UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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Contents

Preface

A Note on the Rendering of Arabic Words and Phrases

VII

A Hamadsha Performance

iNTRODUCnOX

1. Historical Origins: Sufism

2. The Saints and the Orders: Their History

3. The Legends

P/tTf TTnn/i

1 UTL 1 'LUU

4. The Saints' Villages

5. The Lodges of Meknes

6, The Shantytown Teams

101

7. The Circle of Exchange

114

Part Three

8. The Theory of Therapy

133

9. The Pilgrimage

10. The Hadra

■

185

11. The Explanation of Therapy

212

Appendix

231

Glossary

237

Bibliography

241

Index

249

Copyrii '

Preface

This sxndy is based primarily upon field work widi the Qamaddia of
Meknes and the Jebel Zerhoun in 1967 and 1968. My research was sop-
ported by a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (NOi
13776-01), a Quain Grant from the Institute of Intercultuial Research,
and an award from The Committee on Research in the Sciences and
Humanities of Princeton Uniyersity.

For preliminary advice I should like to thank Professor Ernest GeH-
ner of the London School of Economics; Professor Clifford Geertz,
then of the University of Chicago; Professors Abdelqadar Khatibi and
Abddouahed Radi of the University of Rabat; Drs. Lawrence Rosen,
Stuart Schaar, and John Wateifoury; Mr. Erich Alport of Oxford; Mr.
Ahmed El Yacoubi of New York and Tangier; and a nameless Skalian
waiter at a Perpignan cafe, who first told me that the l^famadsha were
still in existence. To Mr. David Hart of Ahneria I am eqiedally grate-
ful not only for his preliminary suggestions but for his continual en-
couragement and advice throughout my term of field work. To Dr.
Benyldialef, Secretary General of die Moroccan Ministry of Health;
Dr. J. J. Maupom6, m^didn-chef of the Hdpital d Ghazi in Sal6; Dr.
George Brown; and Mr. William Stott, dien of the American Embassy
in Rabat, I am indebted for facilitating my research.

Although I assume full responsibility for the contents and theoretical
premises of this study, I should like to thank Professors Conrad Areas-

berg, Margaret Mead, Robert F. Murphy, and Abraham Rosman of
Columbia University; Dr. Theodora Abel of the Postgraduate Center
for Mental Health in New York; Dr. Nicholas S. Hopkins and Dr. Dale
F. Eickelman of New York University; and Mr. Roy Mottahedeh,
then of Harvard, for their many suggestions. Professors Mead, Mur-
phy, Rosman, and Hopkins have read and commented on the text. To
Dr. George Devereux of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, I am
particularly grateful Not only have his keen psychological insights

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VUl

THE I^AMADSHA

been of great value to me, but his many comparisons with the ancient
Greek world have added perspective and depth to my thinking about
the Qamadsha.

It is of course impossible to thank all my Moroccan friends who not
only offered me their hospitality but devoted themselves to my study
widi patience and understanding. I am especially grateful to the mizwar
of Sidi Ahmed Dghughi and the muqaddims of the Qamadsha lodges
and teams of Melmes; to Ahmed bel Louafi of Beni Ouarad; Hamadi
ben Salah and Hadda and Labid ben Mohammed of Meknes; and
Moulay Abdeslem ben Moulay Mahajub, who treated me as both son
and student.

Finally I should like to thank my wife, Jane Kramer, and my field
assistant, who has asked to remain anonymous. Without them this study
could never have been made, and to them I dedicate it.

A Note on The Rendering
of Arabic Words and Phrases

Arabic words and phrases in this study have been rendered in the sim-
plest manner yet recognizable to the Arabic speaker. Diacritical marks
have been avoided wherever possible. Only the *am, the ha, and the in-
ternal glottal stop (by an tnnlaut) have been used. Place and tribal
names and the names of my informants have been written in the French
fashion currently in use in Morocco. Other words have been vmtten
in a manner more in keeping with English phonetics or as they appear
in the Merriam- Webster Third New International Dictionary. With
the exception of a few plurals such as "jnim," "foqra," and "ghiyyata,"
which occur frequently in the text, all other plurals of Arabic words
are indicated by adding an "s" to the singular form. Italics are generally
used only on the first occurrence of a foreign word in each of its con-
texts. A glossary appears at the end of the study.

The reader will be able to ^proximate Moroccan Arabic pronuncia-
tion by pronouncing consonants as in English and vowels as m Italian.
The {r is always hard as in "go" or "geese." The j is pronounced like
the "s" in "pleasure." The q is like an English "k" but much further
back in the throat. The gh is pronounced like the uvular "r" in French.
The kh is like the German "ch" in "Bach." The sh is like the "sh" in
"ship " ^ and h have no English or European equivalents. The ^ is pro-
nounced a little like "a" in father; like an "h" in a loud stage
whisper. The glottal stop indicates a break between vowels as in "uh
oh."

In the pronunciation of place names the render has only to remember
that an initial ou is pronounced like a "w" and a ch like an "sh." The
final e is not pronounced.

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And they cried aloud, and cut
themselves after their manner
with knives and lancets, till
the blood gushed out upon them.

(1 Kings 18, xxviii)

A Hamadsha Performance

The square in front of the tomb of Sheikh al-Kamal in Meknes was
just beginning to fill up \Mth townsmen, families from the nearby
shantytow ns, and a few Berber and Arab tribesmen when we arrived
at 2:45 on a Friday afternoon in January. W^e were immediately sur-
rounded by children — whom we had to fend off, sometimes violently,
as they gaped and grabbed with curiosity at us. In one comer of the
square a line of beggar women, huddled together, were blankly watch-
ing a woman prance around to the wailing of four or five singers,
hawking blessings for a few francs. Near them, a tiny, wizened old man,
dressed in a white tunic, was neatly laying out a plastic tablecloth. He
sat down on it, held up his staff between his legs, and wept He was
generally ignored. A dicle of childrea had formed around another man
who bandied a Stick and shouted at them, and occasionally pulled open
his shirt and puffed out his lungs through a round hole in his chest.
Here and there crowds were starting to press around candy and orange
vendors, con men and tricksters, story-teUers and preachers, dancers
and fortune-tellers. In the comer closest to the tomb of their saint,
Sheikh al-Kamal, the founder of the famed brotherhood of the Isa-
wiyya and the patron of Meknes, a group of adepts began their dance.
As we moved through the crowd to watch them, we were suddenly
attracted by the sound of the oboe known as the ghita and were told
that the ^amadsha, whom we had come to see, were about to start their
performance.

We were greeted warmly by All, a denizen of the nearby shant} -
town whom we had met earlier in the day when he chased children
from our car with a big stick. He shook our hands over and over again
while the rest of the l^amadsha prepared their instruments. There were
nine in all: three guwwala who played a large pottery drum shaped
like an hourglass; one tabbal who played a snare drum; two ghiyyata

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TH£ I^AMADSHA

who played the oboe; two money collectors, Ali and another man who
reminded me of a New ^igknd church udier; and a dance leader, or
muqaddim. The drummers were tightening their drums over a paper
and cardboard fire as the ghiyyata tuned their instruments. Ali began
to recite a prayer, or fatlpay and to ask for money from the spectators
who had gathered in a circle around the ^amadsha. He had a show-
man*s sense of gesture and timing.

Suddenly the ghiyyata began to play. It was now 3:11 pjn. The
crowd of men, women, and childroi pressed inward and were vio-
lently pushed back by Ali and the "usher" until a semi-drcle was
formed, with the musicians at one end, against the wall of the square,
and a group of ten or eleven men standing shoulder to shoulder oppo-
site them. The men raised themselves up on their toes and pounded
down hard on their heels to the rhythm of the drums. At the same
time, they raised and lowered their shoulders in a sort of ongoing slirug
and hissed out air, occasionally chanting "Allah! Allah! Allah the
eternal! Allah the adorable!" The muqaiddim, a yellow-faced man
dressed in a bright green acetate robe, danced directly in front of them,
encouraging those who had fallen out of rhythm. Sometimes he would
jump in the air, spin around, and land hard on his heels. At other times
he would leap into the air and, as he landed, bring his outstretched
fists in against his chest as though he were lancing himself. And at still
other times he would pound his chest with his fists in a sort of breast-
stroke motion.

Almost immediately after the line of male dancers had formed, two
women, one in a pale blue jallaba and the other in a black one, pushed
their way through the crowd and began to dance directly in front of
the ghiyyata. They did not move their feet as the men did, but instead
bobbed up and down from the waist, their heads nearly hitting the
ground, or swayed their bodies back and forth in much the motion that
Arab w omen use to wash their floors. Their hair had come loose and
was flying out in all directions. They reminded me of ancient maenads.
Two other women joined them; all the women seemed to fall into
trance much more quickly, and easily, than the men.

By 3:30 there were four women dancing and the line of men had
grown to 21. There must have been between 200 and 300 spectators
standing in the circle and perched on the walls of the square. Ali and
the ''usher" made the rounds, collecting— almost extracting — a few
francs from each of the spectators. The drumming remained constant,
or so it seemed to me; it was the ghita which was producing the varia^
tions in sound. The drumming, by this time, had begun to have a

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A ^AMADSHA PERFORMANCE XIU

dulling effect on me, and the music of the ghita an irritating one. I
noticed that many of the spectators, especially those nearest the ghiy-
yata, were in a light trance or at least dazed. Their eves seemed glazed,
fixed on the musicians or the dancers. The smell of all the hot, close,
sweating bodies was stifling.

The performance w ent on, without much variation, until a few min-
utes after 4. Occasionallv^ one of the male dancers would leave the Hne
and dance in the center space, alone or with the muqaddim. Usually
such dancers were in an entranced frenzv^ and were not able to follow
the rhythm of the dance verv^ well. One of the female dancers was led
by a fat man, who participated only peripherally in the dance and
seemed to be a sort of helper to the performers, over to the hne of
male dancers and made to dance with them. This seemed to relax her,
to "bring her down.**

At 4:15 there was a hush in the crowd as an extremely tall man in
white robes, with a gold scarf around his neck, entered the dance area.
A woman poked me and told me that he was a seer and a true Ham-
dushi. A man signaled that he was a homosexual who plaved the pas-
sive role. His costume was, in fact, effeminate, his breasts well-devel-
oped, his hair long and curlv, and his neck so swollen that I suspected
some sort of glandular disorder. In a few minutes he was deep in a
"chattering" trance: his mouth was opening and closing at a rate well
out of the range of voluntary behavior. His head was thrust far back,
his eyes were popping. He wandered, disoriented, around the center
of the circle. Then the ghivvata changed their tune slightly, and he
was immediately "drawn" to them. He danced before them, his back
to the audience, in a way w hich was closer to the women's dance than
to the men's. He seemed more closed in upon himself than the other
dancers, more separated from the audience and the other performers.
Suddenly he began to beat his head with what appeared to be his fists
but were in fact two pocket knives, one in each hand. The woman
next to me whispered, " *Aisha, *Aisha Qandisha." Faster and faster he
slashed at his head (the music too seemed faster), until his long curls
were matted down with blood and his back and face were streaked
with it.

Many of the men and women looked on dispassionately, but the
children in the audience grew restive and excited. More than one
mother raised her baby high in her arms to see the slashing. The
muqaddim began to dash frenetically around the perimeter of the drde.
His eyes bulging, he asked for a loiife, but the **helper** refused and,
pulling the muqaddim toward him, took the leader's head under his

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XIV

THE HAMADSHA

arm and scratched it. When the muqaddim finally regained his senses,
the helper kissed him on the cheek and released him. By this time the
head-slasher had stopped and was seated in a comer near some women,
a very pained expression on his face. The musicians continued to play
the same tune and in a minute or two he was up again, dancing and
slashing with even more abandon than before. Then suddenly, unex-
pectedly, he sat down again among the women. One of them began to
bind his scalp with a pale blue scarf, another kissed his bloody hands
and licked the blood that had stained her veil. A baby was lifted ow
the crowd and handed to the sladier, who kissed him. A third woman
smeared a little blood on the baby's stCMnach. The slasher no longer
looked pained; his expression now was radiant.

It was now 4:35. The musicians had changed their tune, and the
dance seemed calmer to me. Twenty men were still pounding and
hissing in their line. Several women had danced through the head-
slashing scene, quite oblivious to it; one of them, a woman in bkck, had
been bobbing up and down since the beginning of the performance, an
hour and a lulf before. The rest of the diance seemed veiy unreal to me.
I felt very distant, very removed fom what was going on in front
of me.

At 4:55 the ghiyyata blew two or three long, \railing blasts, and the

performance was over. A few of the performers shook hands while the
crowd dispersed. Several women came up to the slasher to ask his
blessing. The Isawa, the followers of Sheikh al-Kamal, were still danc-
ing in their comer, but they had drawn a much smaller crowd than
the Qamadsha. We were told that the Miliana, the followers of an
Algetian saint who specialize in playing with and eating fire, had also
pedformed, as well as a branch of the Isawiyya that charm snakes.

Friday, January 12, 1968
Shdkii al-Kamal, Meknes
Morocco

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Introduction

The ^amadsha are members of a loosely and diversely oigamzed
leligioiis brotherhood, or oonfrateroity, which traces its sptritnal herit-
age back to two Moroccan saints of the late seventeenth and early
dghtseenth centuries, Sidi ^AU ben Qamdush and Sidi Ahmed DghughL
E>espite a certain notoriety due to their head-^hing and other prac-
tices of self-mutilation, tiie lElamadsha have receii^ comparative^
little attention in the literature, ethnographic or other, on Morocco and
North Africa.^ This has probably resulted less from any secretiveness
or lack of cooperation on their part than from their political insignifi-
cance and from the fact that they have been overshadowed by larger,
more spectacular brotherhoods like the Isawiyya.

The Qamadsha have been classified by French scholars as an extreme
example of the coTifrerie populaire, a sort of degenerate form of the
Sufi brotherhoods of the Muslim high tradition, corrupted by the base
imagination of le peuple, by survivals from the ancient religions of the
circum-Mediterranean culture area, and by pagan influences from sub-
Sahaian A^ca. They are considered, then, to be part of the cult of
saints, or ?naraboutism, which has been generally regarded as the hall-
mark of Alaghrebian Islam. The French word **marabourismc" is derived
from the Arabic rnurabit, which describes a man attached to God — the
root itself means "attach" or "fasten" — and has been used for any of
the warrior-saints who brought Islam to Morocco. "Maraboutisme" has
become in French a catch-all expression for all sorts of activities asso-
ciated with the worship of saints. It may, for our purposes, serve to
define two basic institutions: the cult of saints and the religious brother-
hoods.

The saints of Morocco — ^they are referred to as siyyid, salib, or nvaU
^The most complete study u a aidde fay Heiber, pnblidied in 1923.

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THE 9AMADSHA

— may be descendents of the Prophet, founders and sheikhs of religious
brotherhoods like the Hamdushiy) a,^ political heroes of the past,
scholars reputed for their piety and religious learning, holy fools, or
''simply vivid Individuals who had tried to make something happen"
(Geertz 1968:8). Associated with the tribal structure of Morocco, they
run a gamut of importance frmn the purely local saint about whom all
but his name is forgotten, and who is perhaps visited by half a dozen
women each year, to a saint like Moulay Idriss, to whom all Moroccans,
Berbers and Arabs alike, pay homage (Dermenghem 1954:11-25).
Some^ like Moulay Abdeslem ben Me^hish, Sidi Hamzam, or Sidi Said
Ahansal, were hi^rical figures of considerable fame; while others, as
Wcstermarck (1926 (I):49) put it, seem to have been invented to
explain the holiness of a place.

The object of the cult of saints is the saint's tomb — usually a squat,
white cubical building with domed roof (qubba). These dot the Mo-
roccan countiyside and are cared for by the saint's descendants —
celibacy is not a prerequisite for sainthood in the Islamic world^-or by
a caretaker (muqaddim) who lives on part of the alms received from
pilgrims. The tombs are visited and venerated by men, women, and
children anxious to obtain ^m their saint some favor such as a male
child, a cure for a bout of rheumatism or a case of devil-possession, a
favorable verdict at court, political asylum, or simply good fortune.
A particular behavioral set designed to enable the pilgrim to obtain
the saint's blessing or holiness (baraka) is associated with each tomb.
Its components may vary from the offering of a candle to the sacrifice
of a bull or even a camd; from kisang the four sides of the tombstone
to chanting long litanies; from rolling a holy stone over aching parts
of the body to receiving massages from descendants of the saint. Sacred
springs and grottos, trees, stones, and animals believed to contain
baraka, and spots to which the jnuny or devils, are said to gravitate,
are often found near the tombs. These too have their behavioral dic-
tates which are linked to the veneration of the saint (Basset 1920).

The brotherhoods are associated with the cult of saints, for their
members follow the path (tariqa) of a spiritual leader, or sheikh j who
is usually considered to be a saint. There is considerable variation in
the organization, function, degree of theological sophistication, and
ultimate aim of the brotherhoods. The members of die more sophis-

'Thc Hamadsha brotherhood is referred to as at-tariqa al-Havidushiyya, or
siniplv as l-Haindushiyya. A male adept of the brotherhood is a I^aindiishi; a
female adept, a ifrnidusMyya, The juural for both male and female adq>t8 is
Ifrnnadsbttf whicfa I also employ as an adjecdve;

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INTRODUCTION

ticated are lecruited, as might be expected, from the wealthiest, best-
educated strata of Islamic society; the members of others, like the
](Jamadsha, come from the illiterate masses. Ail of the orders involve
certain ritualized acts: the mechanical recitation of supernumerary
prayers, reminiscent of the Sinaitic and Anthonic prayers of Jesus or
the chants of mantra yoga; listening to music; dancing. The popular
orders tend to be extreme: wild dances inducing ecstatic, frenetic
trances; drinking boiling water; eating spiny cactus and other defile-
ments; charming poisonous snakes; and innumerable acts of self-mutila-
tion. All of them attempt to produce some sort of extraordinary psy-
chic state which may be interpreted as union with God or possession
by a demon.

Unlike the members of the more sophisticated orders, who consider
their founding saint as a spiritual master who has provided them w^ith
a path to God, the members of the popular orders often consider their
saint as an object of devotion in his own right and the source of power
for their miraculous feats. Some of the orders have an extensive net-
work of lodges located not only in Morocco but as far East as Mecca
and deep into sub-Saharan Africa; others are limited to a few members
who meet when and where they can. Some have close tics with die
descendants of their founding saint, to whom they must give their
complete allegiance and all of the alms they collect each yeai^ others
have almost no contact with the families of the saint. Some have a very
elaborate hierarchy of initiates; others no hierarchy whatsoever. Some
meet in well-constructed lodges, others in the open or in private houses.
All of them arc firmly convinced that they are faithful members of the
Orthodox Muslim community. Some of these confraternities still flour-
ish today, others are moribund, and still others defunct.

The Hamadsha are, in fact, members of two distinct brotherhoods
which are closely related to each other and often confused. The ^Alla-
liyyin are the followers of Sidi *Ali ben Hamdush, and the Dghughiyyin
follow Sidi *^Ali's servant, or slave, Sidi Ahmed Dghughi.^ Both saints
are buried and venerated some 16 miles by road northwest of the city
of Meknes on the south face of the Zerhoun massif — Sidi 'Ali, whose
tomb is one of the largest in Morocco, in the comparatively wealthy
village of Bcni Rachid, and Sidi Ahmed about a mile farther up the
mountain, in the much poorer village of Beni Ouarad. The inhabitants
of Beni Ouarad are much darker than those of Beni Rachid. Roughly

*I diall use die tenn J^amaisba to refer to bodi orden and to pncdoes oooi-
mon to bodi. ^AltaUyyin and Dgbugbiyyiu will refer to die q;»ecuSc offden and
dieir specific pracdoes.

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THE HAMADSHA

a sixth of the population of each village claims agnatic descent from
their respective saints. 'Fhev are collectively referred to as the mmlad
siyyid, the children of the saint. As the "children" of both saints claim
descent not only from their saintly ancestors but from the Prophet as
well, thcv may also be called shurfj, the Moroccan Arabic plural for
sharif, a dcsccndent of the Prophet Muhammad through his daughter
Fatima and his son-in-law 'Ali. Since the children of each saint are all
able to trace their descent back to a single ancestor, they constitute, in
anthropological terminology, a maximal lineage. Each of the two maxi-
mal lineages, which are in turn divided into a number of smaller patri-
lincages, is governed by a headman, or 7mzwar. A descendant of Sidi
*Ali or Sidi /\hmed has the option of becoming a member of his an-
cestor's brotherhood, but rarely takes this option.

The members of the Hamadsha brotherhoods — they are most com-
monly called foqra — are divided into teams. A team (taifa) may have
a specific meeting place, or lodge, called a zawiya. Although the word
"zawiya" refers, strictly speaking, only to the meeting place of a par-
ticular taifa, I will follow common Moroccan usage and use it to refer
to members of a particular lodge as welL The taifa must also be dis-
tinguished from the taruia, which is either a brotherhood or the "path"
or 'S(ray"-^hat Is, the teachings— of a particular saint.

Although the I^amadsha may be related historically to the mystical
tradition of Islam, they do not usuaUy conceive of the goal of their
piactices as union or communion with God, but rather as the cure of
the devil-struck and the devil-possessed. They are essentially curerSi and
it is in this spirit that I propose to examine them. This is not to say
that the l^amadsha would consider such an investigation appropriate or
even desirable. They have received their power (baraka) to cure itoxsk
Allah by way of I£s servant, their saint and intermediary to Him, and
they are content with their lot. The ways of Allah are not to be
questioned. To ask whether they concdve of their cures as essentially
religious in nature, however ''religious" may be defined, is to ask a
question which has no meaning for them. All activities are religious
insofar as they are contingent upon the will of Allah, and this very
contingency is brought home to them with particular poignancy by this
fact tlmt the cures diey effect are extraordinary, outside the tone and
content of everyday life.

The ^lamadsha are not just curers but successful curers at that, in
terms of the standards theur society sets and, in some instances, in terms
of the standards set by modem medicine. They are able to effect, often
dramatically, the remission of symptoms— ^Mralysis, mutism, sudden

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INTRODUCTION

blindness, severe depressions, nervous palpitations, paraestfaesias, and
possession — which led the patient or his family initblly to seek their
hdp. The sympttmis th^ treat aie freqaently expressions of the com-
mon anxiety reaction found in many primitive societies (Wittkower
1971) or expressions of more severe hysterical, depressive, and even
schizophrenic reactions. The Jtiamadsha are, in their own fashion, su-
perb diagnosticians and generally avoid treating those illnesses which
are regarded by Western medidne as organically caused. They seldom
treat epilepsy.

The Hamadsha complex is to be regarded here, then, as a system of
therapy. Therapy is considered to be a structured set of procedures for
the rehabilitation of an incapacitated individual — an individual who is,
from a sociological perspective, unable to meet role expectations and
effectively perform valued tasks (Parsons 1964). Therapeutic pro-
cedures effect changes in the ailing individual's social situation as well
as in his physical and psychological condition. He is moved through
the roles of sick person and patient back, in the case of successful treat-
ment, to his original role. If the treatment is not completely succ^ful,
he may be regarded as "a chronic case," or as handicapped. The ideal
is of course full restoration to his "old self."

Certain therapies, however, of which the Hamadsha is but one of
many examples, may often be incapable of, or do not even aim at, re-
storing the distressed individual to his previous condition. Rather, they
introduce him to a new social role and concomitant tasks. The individ-
ual may become a member of a cult like that of the Hamadsha. He is
provided thereby not only with a new social identity but also with a
new set of values and a new cognitive orientation — that is, with a new
outlook. This new "outlook" may furnish him with a set of symbols
by which — in the case of psychogenic disorders, at any rate — he can
articulate and give expression to those particular psychic tensions which
were at least in part responsible for his illness. This symbolic set is
closely related to the cult's explanation of illness and theory of therapy.

Aside from techniques designed to alter the physical and psycho-
logical condition of the patient and his social situation, a therapy must
provide the distressed individual, the curer or curers, and other mem-
bers of the society with an explanation of the illness and a theory of
cure.^ In the case of cure by incorporation into a cult, such explana-
tions may be considered the ideology, or belief system, of the cult.
Berger and Luckmann (1967:113) have written:

*ln what follows T am indclMsd to Beiger and Lwckmaim'a Tlie Social Con-
struction of Reality (1967).

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THE HAMADSHA

Snce therapy must concern itself yndi deviatkm firom the "official** defini-
tions of reality, it must develop a conceptual machinery to account for soch
deviations and to maintain the realities challei^ed. This requires a body of
knowledge that includes a theory of deviance, a diagnostic apparatus, and a
conceptual system for the "cure of souls.**

To die extent to which such explanations are commonly known, or at
least known to the ailing individual, they tend to formulate the illness
and furnish, thereby, a ground for therapeutic procedures. This is
particularly true of psychogenic disorders.

In therapies like tluit of the Qamadsha the elements of explanation
consist, as we shall see, of symbols which represent both social and
psychic realities for the ailing individual (and other members of his
milieu). These elements-Hmages, in Godfrey Lienhardt's term— serve
not only to ardculatc but to interpret the individual's experience imme-
diately, and must be at once congruent with both psychological needs
and sodo-cultural realities. They are not individual projections. They
are givens m the world into which the individual is bom and, as such,
serve from the start to mold his reality and to realize themselves in his
psychic life. They provide a schema for the interpretation of his expe-
riences and make liiem congruent with the realities of his world and
that of other members of his culture. Their locus, which may be sought
within the recesses of the soul or without— in the worid, say, of samts
and demons-^nay reflect the chaiacteiisdc stance of an individual
within a particular cultural tradition to others within his world (Crapan-
zano 1971). Such explanarions— they may be calkd symbolic-interpre-
rive— are characteristic of many so-odled primitive therapies and cannot
be divorced fit>m the curing practices themselves. Therapy, in such
cases, involves the manipuladon of symbols not only to give expression
to conflicts withm the individual, but also to resolve them (Livi-Straoss
1963a).

It is suggested here that the I4amadsha effect their cures by incor-
porating their patients into a cult which provides them with both a
new role— one which is probably more in keeping with their individual
needs-^md an interpretation of their illness and its cure. This inter-
pretation permits during the curing ceremonies the symbolic expression
of incapacitating conflicts and the consequent discharge of tensions
which may impede social behavior. This discharge of tensions is not
merely an emotional outburst, which may be of little therapeutic im-
port, but a highly structured process which involves the symbolic
resolution of such tension-producing conflicts. The process of resola-

INTRODUCTION

tion serves not only to ''resocialize the deviant into the objective reality
of the symbohc universe of the society," as Berger and Liickmann
(1967:114) mainrain, but to reestablish or reinforce his motivation.

It must be emphasizx-d that the practices and, to a lesser extent per-
haps, the beliefs of the Hamadsha and the members of other similar
brotherhoods are not characteristic of "Moroccans'' in general. The
Hamadsha complex is a fringe phenomenon, peripheral but by no
means unrelated to the mainstream of the Moroccan socio-culturai
tradition. Many Moroccans, especially Berbers and the educated Arabs,
look askance at the practices of the Hamadsha; they consider them to
be uncouth, unorthodox, disgusting even, and are often embarrassed
when reference is made to them by foreigners. Still, it has been my
impression tliat even among the better-educated — though perhaps not
among the best-educated — disapproval is tempered by a certain awe
which results, if for no other reason, from the dramatic quality of the
Hamadsha performance and the "spectacular" nature of the Hamadslia
cure. These performances, and these cures, are after all the will of God.

The Hamadsha, who are almost exclusively Arabs, consider them-
selves to be members of the Orthodox (Sunni) Muslim community and
follow — or, perhaps more accurately, believe they follow — the laws and
traditions of that community which find their inspiration, if not their
very source, in the Koran and in the Prophetic tradition (hadith).
Indeed, they find the very ground not only of tlieir rehgious belief and
worldview but of their social organization in the Koran — or, again
more accurately, in what they impute to the Koran. The Hamadsha
are in this respect not dissimilar to the millions of ilhterate or quasi-
Hterate Muslims of North Africa and the rest of the Middle Elast. As
heterodox as their behefs and practices may be, they do recognize the
fundamental importance of the "five pillars" of Islam — profession of
faith, pra)'er, almsgiving, fasting, and the pilgrimage to Mecca — and
attempt to lead their lives accordingly.

Like Arabs throughout the world, the Hamadsha are patrihncal and
patrilocal; that is, they trace their ancestry through the male line and
live, if not under the same roof as their fathers, then in the same village
or neighborhood. People in the newly created shantytowns, however,
often live tens if not hundreds of miles from their fathers' homes; but
even thev^ still hold patrilocality as an ideal which thcv have had to
abrogate force of circumstance. Although the nuclear family tends
to be the basic residential unit in the shantytowns — and to a lesser
extent in the city and country — the extended family is perhaps the

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THE 9AMADSHA

basic social unit. Extensions beyond the extended family do not play an
important xole in the shantyto\i^ and among the Hamadsha of the
old quarter of Meknes; they do of course play an important zole for
the descendants of the lE^lamidsha saints. Genealogies of die fbimer are
shallow, seldom exceeding &n generations^ those of the latter are yery
extended, theoretical^ all the way back to the Prophet himsdf by way
of his daughter. PaiaUel-cousin marriage, considered the ideal marriage
among Arabs, is rate in all the l^jhmadsha settings.

The lather, or grandfather, as head of household, is all-poweifiiL
He has strong and direct jural control over his wife or wives, and his
sons (and daughters) must remain subservient to him until the very day
of his death. No hostility whatever can be expressed toward him in Us
presence— or, for that matter, in his absence. Sons who are already
middle-aged, for example, will not smoke in front of their father. His
rule is ateolute, and to foreign observers often appears arbitrary and
harsh. There is considerable rivalry between brodiers— often directed
against the dominant one, who is usually but not necessarily the eldest
— and this livaliy receives its fullest expression in disputes over in-
heritance. (According to the Koran, all sons inherit equally; daughters
inherit a half of what their brothers receive.) Sons were traditionally

economically d^>endait upon and respcmsible to thdr fathen, who

foovided them with the bride-price necessary for marriage. Although
this economic dependence is breakmg down with wage-work in Ac
cities and in Europe, economic responsibility is not. Sons still send home
to their fathers much of what th^ earn.

Women are considered inferior to mesL Fathers— and mothers too
— desire sons and not daughters, in ^te of the fact that th^ receive a
bride price upon their daughters' marriages. Women are considered
weak, defenseless, treacherous, and untrustworthy. They must be con-
stantly watched, locked up even, by their husbands or male kin, and
must always remain submissive to the aggressive dominance of their
menfolk. (Sons at a very early age will b^|in to demand such a sub-
missive attitude from thieir mothers.) Women are considered sexually
insatiable by Moroccan men, at least by those of the Hamadsha's milieu.
The virginity of an unmarried girl— a symbol of her family's honor —
must be preserved at all costs. Wives must be prevented from amorous
adventures. Fear of adultery is rampant. Lone women are always fair
game. Although women are veiled and sequestered whenever possible,
housiDg conditions in the Z'l^omn^^— shantytowns which have grown
up on the outskirts of most Moroccan cities, in the years following the

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INTEODUCTION

arrival of the French— give at least the iUnaon that they have more
freedom than do the womea of eitiier the old quarter or the ZediOQiL
Polygamy is rare in all the l^^amadsha settings. Often it is desired by a
wife who wants help in household matters, Usoally there Is rivdty
between co-wives for then: husband's favor. Older sons are often re-
sentful of their fathers^ second wives, or their stepmothersi who plot,
they dmn-^ot without justification— for their own children to inherit
at die sons' expense.

Men must demonstrate no overt emotional d^iendence upon women;
thi^ must show no signs of femuunity. They must strive contmuaily
to live up to die ideal of male behavior: domination; extreme virility;
great sensitivity to matters of honor, independence, and authority; not
to mention, of course, adherence to the canons of Islam. These ideals
are embodied, realistically or not, in thehr image of their fsthers. Indeed,
the Arab male of the Qamadsha's milieu is caught in a dilenuna be-
tween the dependence, the submission, the obsequiousness, even the
passivity that he must show for years, often for more than half his
lifetime, toward his father, and the independence, the dommation, the
authority, the aggressiveness that he must demonstrate to his sons and
womenfolk. From the conceptual point of view, he must be at once
both male and female. It is tins dilemma that receives symbolic expres-
sion, as we shall see, both in the hagiographic legends and in the Qa-
madsha cures themselves.

A few words on the nature and organization of this study are m order
here. It is an attempt, on the one hand, to present the not-ahogether-
taken-for-granted world of the Igbmadsha and, on the other hand, to
uncover and make explidt the stmctnres and symbds of that wcdd.
Its final ann is to offer an eq>lanation, albeit l^pothetical and incom-
plete, of how the Qamadsha ^ect their cures* Substantivdy, the stady
is necessarily biased. My interest in die Jgbmadsha as essentially curers
not only influenced my own perception of them and the questions I
asked them but also the manner in which I have chosen to present the
collected material. Naturally I have tried whenever and wherever pos-
sible to compensate for this bias, but it would be foolish to daim that
I have overcome it. The Boasian ethnography must always remain in
the realm of the ideal. I was fortunate enough, however, to have had a
view of the Hamadsha which was not altogether alien to their own
view of themselves. Certainly in the shantytowns, and to a lesser extent
in the old quarter of Meknes, the ^^bmadsha considered themselves to

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THE HAMADSHA

be primarily curers and were proudest of all of this activity. Their
devotees were most taken with their extraordinary cures; and I am
certain that I too was captured by their enthusiasm.

Fiddwork itself was conducted in the standard anthropological fash-
ion, with perhaps more than an average amount of material collected
by free-association, imaging, and fantasizing techniques. My field a$»
sistant, a Berber, not a member of die Qamadsha brotherhood and not
a permanent resident of Meknes or its environs, was present at many
of my interviews. He was very gifted, endowed with a fine ethno-
grapl^c cnriosity and imagination and with that rare mobtrustve qual-
ity that makes for a supofo ethnographer. He did not serve as an in-
formant

This study is divided into three main parts. Part One is concerned
with the Qamadsha's past, both in historical and legendary terms.
Chapter One treats the Sufi tradition from which the (faniadsha are in
part derived and with which at least the most knowledgeable ^iamadsha
recognize an affinity. It is a background chapter for the nonspedalist,
and makes no new contribution to the study of the Islamic mystical
tradition. Chapter Two relates what little of die history of the l^amad-
sha is known. Chapter Three is concerned with the hagiographic leg-
ends of the order, legends which are accepted by the ^^ainadsha and
other Moroccans of dieir background as historically true. Indeed, it is
the historical facticity of the legendary events that **charters** the
madsha worldview and ritual acdvity. The legends are r^arded here
as givens in their world and provide the Ijjamadsha with a set of sym-
bob, or perhaps more accurately with a justification for a set of
symbols, by which they organize and give expression to at least part of
their life situations, the most notable being of course their ritual activ-
ities. The analysis of the legends is carried out from a combined struc-
tural and psychoanalytic perspective which reveals, it is hoped, not
only underljnng themes, perhaps indicative of tensions within Moroc-
can society and personality, but also the possible symbolic significance
of certain elements that recur in the Hamadsha's therapeutic theory
and receive symbolic enactment in their rituals.

Part Two is concerned with the component institutions of the
Hamadsha complex and their intricate interrelationships. Descriptions
of the order in the saintly villages of Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad, as
well as of the teams in their urban and shantytown settings, are given
in Chapters Four, Five, and Six. The diverse personnel of the C(Hnplex
are described sociologically, and their relationship to one another and
to the saints they worship is examined in detail in Chapter Seven. The

INTRODUCTION

logic of barakuy or blessing, already found to be of singiular impoitaiice
in the legendary material, is related to the social and economic organi-
zation of the order. A digression, not properly speaking part of the
phenomenological orientation of this study, describes how the tjamad-
sha serve to integrate newcomers to the city by providing them widi
an enlarged social field and more complex interpersonal relations.

Part Three is devoted to ^amadsha therapy. Chapter Eight, on the
theory of therapy, attempts to present—in a manner comparable to the
presentation of Western therapeutic practices — ^thc Hamadsha's own
explanation of their cores. It is again concerned with the givens of their
world. Particular attention is paid to the way in which members of the
order, and other Moroccans, relate to the fnunj or demons, and how
the jnun themselves are related to the saints. Baraka is found to be the
curative element par excellence, but is in itself insufficient to effect a
cure. Chapters Nine and Ten are devoted to a description of the coring
rituals — the pilgrimage and the trance dance — both from the perspec-
tive of an outside observer and from that of the actors themsdves.
"Elements" which occur in both the legends and the theory of therapy
arc given symbolic enactment in the rituals themselves.

The final chapter of the book, Chapter Eleven, attempts a synthesis
of the diverse components of the ^amadsha complex. It is predicated
on the fact that every therapeutic system functions at all levels of
human existence: the physiological, the psychological, and the socio-
logical. Apart from whatever effects the Hamadsha*s rituals have on
the physiological condition of their patients and themselves, they pro-
vide them with a symbolic set, historically justified and socially and
ritually reinforced, which is integrated with their social organization
and expressive perhaps of tensions inherent in at least that segment of
Moroccan society from which the Hamadsha are recruited. This sym-
bolic set, it is suggested, serves to articulate and give expression equally
to the Hamadsha's experience of their physical and social, if not their
physiological, environment. It enables them to act out, albeit s)Tnboli-
cally, the scars of their past, and may indeed be of therapeutic import.
How exactly the structured synibohc set functions for the individual is
relegated to a sequel to tliis work.

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PART ONE

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Historical Origins;
Sufism

Isbmic mysddsm is known as Sufism, a word derived &om the Arabic
for wool, suf, and originally applied to certain ascetics who wore
clothes of coarse wool as a sign of penitence and worldly renunciation.
The aim of Sufism, like that of other mysticisms, has been to realize a
union with the Ultimate Reality or Godhead (fang fi4^f^q)» This
union has both a negative and a positive aspect: it involves, on the one
hand, an escape from the bondage of the phenomenal self and an ab-
sorption or annihilation into the Divine (f«mi), and on the other hand
a continuance of real existence in the Divine (baqa) (Nicholson 1963:
18). The Sufi's quest has been to bridge the distance between himself
and his God, and Sufism itself has generally been considered by Idbunic
scholars as a reaction to the *'cold** and formalistic tenets of Orthodox
Islam, which lays great emphasis on the absolute gulf between man and
God (Evans-Pritchard 1949:1-2; Gibb 1961:135).

Historically, the origins of Sufism have been related to such diverse
movements as Christianity, Neo-Platonism, Gnosticism, Zoroastrianism,
and Buddhism. Within tiie Islamic tradition itself, it has been consid-
ered an outgrowth of the ascetic pietism of the first centuries of Islam
which — ^by stressing both the fear of God and man's responsibility to
the moral ideal, and not simply to the mechanical observance of the law
— ^couraged introspection of the moral motive and promoted an
awareness of the inner life (Rahman 1966:154; Massignon 1934). The
first Sufis were most often quietists who pursued their quest for God
in isolation and usually through ascetic discipline. With the develop-
ment of Islamic law and theology, however, a split developed between
those members of the Muslim religious intelligentsia, the ^ulofm or
canonists, whose emphasis was nec^sarily impersonal, and those— the

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THE ^AMADSHA

Sufis, properly speaking— who looked for a more personal basis for
their piety (Rahinan 1966:155-156). The canonists were displeased
with die Sufis* emphasis on the searching of conscience, since the Ko-
ranic kw had only legislated for an external tribunal and had no
weapon against religious hypocrisy. They accused the Sufis of hetero-
doxy because the Sufis held that intention was more important than act,
practical example (suima) superior to the law (fard), and obedience
better than observance (Massignon 1934: 682 ).

From the ninth century on, a number of SaB. thinkers attempted to
integrate Sufism with Orthodoxy— a movement cuhninated in the
twdfth century by al-Ghazzali — and, as they won converts from the
more orthodox position, the simple piety and gospel of love of the
earliest Sufis were transformed into an elaborate mystical doctime of a
spiritual journey toward God (Rahman 1966:162). The way or path
to God, like the scak sancta of St. John Gimacus, consisted of a num-
ber of stages such as repentance, abstinence, poverty, and trust in God,
through which the mystic had to pass in order to achieve his goal.
These stages (singular form, maqama), which constituted the ethical
discipline of the Sufi and had to be mastered by his own effort, must
be distinguished from those states («jnmi/; singular form, ftal) — medi-
tation, nearness to God, intimacy, certainty, and the like— which
formed a psychological chain and over which the mystic had no con-
trol. They descend from God. Once the mystic has passed through aH
the stages and has experienced as many of the states as God has been
willing to allow him, he is raised to a higher plane of consciousness
caDed Gnosis (vuMfa) and Truth (tta^qd)^ in which he realizes that
knowledge, knower, and known are one (Nicholson 1963:28-29).

The fact that by foUowing the Sufi path a man could realize a
coalescence with the Divine led to the elaboration of the doctrine of
sainthood — a doctrine which was to permit the introduction of Gnostic
and Neo-PIatonic ideas like the notion of the Perfect Man of late an-
tiquity (Van Grunebaum 1954:23) and of pagan beliefs and practices
like ancestor worship. The Arabic word wait, or saint, derived from a
root which means "nearness," is used to refer to an individual, living or
dead, whose holiness has brought him near to God and who has re-
ceived, as a special favor from God, miraculous gifts (singular form,
karama). Less emphasis has been placed on the exemplary quality of
the saint's life than on his ability to perform miracles — a sign of God's
favor. The saints were said to form an invisible hierarchy upon which
the order of the world rested and to be headed by a Qmb, or Axis,
the greatest Sufi of the age, around whom the universe rotated. Careful

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HISTORICAL ORIGINS: 8UTI8M

attention was paid, however, to the difference between saints and
prophets and bet\veen saintly miracies (singular form, karama) and
prophetic miracles {miffzet)\ and so long as these distinctions were
kept, the Orthodox had no qualms about incorporating the doctrine of
sainthood, which was not expressly forbidden by the Koran. From the
tenth centiuy on there developed a derivative notion which was not
within the spirit of Orthodoxy: the absolute and unquestioning sub-
mission to a sheikhy or spiritual master, who often founded his own
particular path, or tariqa.

The development of these "paths" has been traced, on the one hand,
to a class of preachers and story-tellers (singular form, qussa) who en-
larged upon Koranic stories, and on the other hand to informal gather-
ings {1?alaqa) for religious discussion and recitation of religious for-
mulse (dikr). These particular preachers succeeded in introducing new
ideas, especially of Shi'ite origin, which were vigorously condemned by
the more orthodox Muslims. By rbc middle of the ninth century many
of the important ideas of Sufism iiad been developed and were being
piihliclv taught in Baghdad and other centers of Islam, with great pop-
ular success. From the simple Koranic recitations of the eighth century,
there developed a complex congregational ritual which was designed to
send the participants into religious ecstasy (ivajd). Some of these ex-
ercises consisted, first and by wa\- of preparation, of communal recita-
tions of religious writings (fpizb) and then of prolonged repetition of
shorter phrases (dikr), until the words no longer made an impression
on the senses of the participant and nothing but the form of the Divine
Name was left. Others involved playing and Hstcning to musical instal-
ments (sama^); dancing (^75 or badra); tearing clothes (f^TWZi^); acts
of self-mutilation like those of the Hamadsha; and the contemplation
of a young man, an ephebus, bchcved somehow to represent or embody
the Divine (Ritter 1955:491-501). The more extreme practices were
considered heretical by the canonists, and the legality of music and
dance has long been debated both within and without the Sufi move-
ment (Mole 1963).

During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the first organized
tariqas — or dervish brotherhoods, as they are sometimes called — began
to appear. Famous teachers gathered around them in lodges disciples
who, once initiated into their teacher's way, started branches in other
lands. The founder of a brotherhood was usually venerated as a saint,
and his place of burial, like that of other saints, became a site of pil-
grimage. Not only was he provided with a genealogy of spiritual
authority, a silsila, which led back to the Caliph 'Ali, but often also

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THE I^AMAOSHA

with a socio-biological one which traced bis ancestry back to the
Prophet and thereby gave him the right to be called a sharif. Although
his sons— there were no rules of celibacy in most of the brotherhoods
— often inherited his poation as leader, this was not universally the case.
The adepts themselves, who owed absolute allegiance to their master,
were divided into two principal groups: the disciples, usually literate,
who were involved in the religious activities of the lodge and in the
collection of revenues; and the lay members, usually illiterate, who
were nominally attached to the order and participated on certain stated
occaaons in the ceremonial (Gibb 1961:152).

Some of the brotherhoods not only spread throughout the Islamic
world but served also to introduce their particular brand of Islam into
non-Islamic lands (Gibb and Bowen 1957:75; Abun-Nasr 1965). Al-
though the hierarchical organization and the ties between main and
subordinate lodges were often loose, the brotherhoods-^>articulariy
during times of stress such as the French invasions of North and West
Africa in the nineteenth century (Abun-Nasr 1965: 1) — did bring to-
gether, at least temporarily, structurally disparate social groups. This
unifying function must not be exaggerated, however, for the orders did
not have the organization to knit their branches together permanently
(Gibb and Bowen 1957:78). Appealing largely to artisans and members
of the lower classes (Gibb and Bowen 1957:182), they tended not to
ally themselves with the ruling classes, and often served as a bulwark
against political despotism (Rahman 1966: 182). Thus the continual hos-
tility between the Sufis and the canonists, supporters of the central
government, must be seen not only along theological lines but also
within its political context.

Sufism, which followed its own particular course in Morocco and
helped to di£Fuse Islam through the country, was intimately linked with
the tribal structure and political development of the area. Mahdi ibn
Tumart, the founder of the great Almohad dynasty of the twelfth cen-
tury and successor to the Almoravids who had played an important
role in the qiread of Islam in Morocco, was deeply influenced by
Sufism. The most influential of the earliest of the Moroccan Sufis was
perhaps Abu Medyan of Tlemcen, who died toward the end of the
twelfth century. Not only had he traveled to the East, where he be-
came a disciple of Moulay Abdelqader al-Jilani (1077-1127 a.d.), the
founder of the first organized brotherhood, the Qadiri^ya, but he had
also studied the works of al-Ghazzali at Fez under 'Ali ben Hirzihim
(Sidi Harazam) (Michaux-Bellaire 1921: 143; Rinn 1884:211 et seq.).

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HISTORICAL ORIGINS: SVFISM

Although Abu Medyan's teachings emphasized quite simply the abso-
lute concentiation on God and the abnegation of the worid— "Say
tsod* and abandon all that Is material or pertains thereto, if thou de-
sirest to attain the true end" (Gibb 1961: 158)— 4ie served, at least sym-
bolically, to synthesize the teachings of the three most influential
mystics in Moroccan Sufism: alrjilani, aK^hazzali, and their spiritual
ancestor al-Junayd.

The Sufi moyement^ already powerful in the twelfth century, devd^
oped during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries its own particular
Moroccan cast^ which has come to be called *'maraboutisaL*' A mara-
bout, identifiable with the Sufi saint, is a man bound to God, and in
Morocco as dsewhere in the Ishonic worid such a man is beUered to
be possessed of a miraculous force or power called barakOf or blessing
—which, as we shall see, is not only transmissible to his progeny but
has in certain special drcomstances a contagious quality. Clifford
Geertz (1968:44) has attempted to capture its meaning in impression-
isdc and somewhat romantic tenns. He writes:

Literally, "baraka** means blessing, in die sense of divine favor. But qireading
oat from tiiat nndear meaning, specifying and delimiting it, it endoses a
whole range of linked ideas: material prosperity, physacal weU-being, bodily

satisfaction, con^edon, lock, plenitude, and, the aspect most strasaed by
Western writers anxious to force it into a pigeonhole with mana, magical
power. In broadest terms, "baraka" is not, as it has so often been represented,

a paraphysical force, a kind of spiritual electricity — a view which, though
not entirely without basis, simplifies it beyond recognition. Like the notion
of the exemplary center, it is a conception of the mode in which the divine
reaches into the world, implicit, uncriticizcd, and far from systematic, it
too is a "doctrine.**

More exactly, it is a mode of ooostruing— emotionally, morally, intellec-
tually — human e]q)erience, a cultural gloss on life. And diough diis is e
vast and intricate problem, what this construction, this gloss, com^ down
to, so at least it seems to me, is the proposition (agam, of course, wholly
tacit) diat the sacred appears most directly in the world as an endowment
—a talent and a capacity, a special ability' — of particular individuals.
Rather than electricity, the best (but still not very good) analogue for
"baraka" is personal presence, force of character, moral vividness. Man-
bonts have '^banka" in die way that men have stm^di, courage, dignity,
ddn, beauty, or Intell^enoe. LOce these, thoi^ it is not the same as these,
more even of all of them put together, it is a gift which some men have in
greater d^jiee than others, and which a few, marabouts, have in superladve
degree. The problem is to decide who (not only, as we shall see, among

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THE HAMADSHA

the living, but also among the dead) has how much, and how to benefit
from it.

And one might add, rather more concretely: how it manifests or is
believed to manifest itself. Although baraka is indeed in certain in-
stances a quality, not always as positive and beneficial by either Mo-
roccan or Western standards as Geertz' definition might lead us to
believe, it lias at times, in the popular imagination at any rate, a more
independent existence — and, in cither case, a logic of its own which,
as we shall see, must be situationally understood.

The religious brotherhoods, whose members played an important
role in the diffusion of baraka, first appeared in Morocco in the thir-
teenth century and have more or less retained the form of the tradi-
tional Sufi confraternities. The Portuguese invasions in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries served as a spur to their development and dif-
fosifm among the urban and rural masses; and from the collapse of the
Merinid dynasty in the fifteenth century to the establishment of the
present, or Alawite, dynasty in the seventeenth, the brotherhoods
played a dominant role in Moroccan political history (LeToumeau
1958; Terrasse 1930). The anarchical conditions immediately preceding
the reign of Mouky Ismail and following his death may have provided
an atmosphere conducive to the development of such popular brother-
hoods as the Qamadsha.

Most of the principal extant orders of Morocco, including the l^a-
madsha — the Jilaliyya and the Tijanniyya are the outstanding excep-
tions—are said to be derived from al-Jazuli (d. 1465 A.D.?), a disci{^
of al-Shadhili (d. 1258 aj).), himself a disciple of a disciple of Abu
Medyan. The teachings of al-Shadhili— he himself left no writing and
founded no order— seem to have been orthodox and to have emphasized
devotion to God. He discouraged monastidsm and encouraged his fol-
lowers to pursue their worldly professions. The five principal points of
his teaching were the fear of God in secret and in open; adherence to
Prophetic custom (sunm) in word and deed; contempt for mankind
in prosperity and adversity; resignarion to the will of God in matters
great and small; and recourse to God in joy and sorrow (Margoliouth
1934:247).

The fame of al-Jazuli, which overshadows his master's in Morocco,
is perhaps less the result of the man than the epoch. Jazuli, who at the
time of his death was the head of a large network of lodges in the
south of Morocco, was buried in the Valley of the Sous. It is claimed
that his disciple al-Shayjraf carried his master's corpse on his cam-

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HISTORICAL ORIGINS: 8UPI8M

paigns for twenty years and iliuminated it each night with a candle
the size of a man. Seventy-seven years later, at the height of a period
of religious fervor and political consolidation, his body was ezhmned
and transported to Marrakech by one of the Saadian sultans as a rally-
ing point for anti-Portuguese sentiment (Miciiaux-Bellaire 1921:148;
1927:58 etseq,).

The Isawiyya, the oldest extant order which traces its origin to al-
Jazuli, was founded by M'hamed ben Isa at-Mukhtari, the Perfect
Sheikh (Sheikh al-Kamal), around 1500 a.d., and has probably influ-
enced the practices, if not the doctrine, of the I^amadsha. The Hamad-
sha themselves trace Sidi *Ali's spiritual ancestry to al-Jazuli by way
of Bu'abid Sharqi, the patron of horsemen (d. circa 1600 a.d.), whose
tomb is located in the town of Boujad near Beni Mellel (Schoen 1937).
The author of the Salwat al-Anfas, quoting from the Saluk at-Tariq al-
Qariyya, reports that Sidi *Ali had received instruction from Sidi Mu-
hammad al-Hafyan, who was in turn instructed by Bu'abid Sharqi.
Bu^abid Sharqi had received instruction both from his father, Sidi Abu
al-Qasim al-Zari al-Jabiri al-Ratsami, the pupil of al-Tebba, and from
Sidi Abdallah ben Fasi, himself a pupil of al-Tebba through his teacher
al-Ghezwani (Paquignon 1911:534). Sidi *Ali himself is said to liave
taken a disciple, Sidi Ahmed Dghughi. Around these two men there
developed two quasi-distinct orders, the history of which is, as we shall
see, almost totally unknown.

Copy riyt ilea material

The Saints
and the Orders:
Their History

Little is known historically of the lives of dther Sidi *Ali ben Qamdush
or Sidi Ahmed DghughL Neither the saints nor any of their descendants
or followers have left any writings, and although the **children of Sidi
^Ali** have in their possession a hand-written htstoiy of their ancestor,
recently prepared by a scholar from Fez, it appears to be little more
than a genealogical justification for their claim to be descendants not
only of Sidi 'Ali but of Morocco's national saint Moulay Idriss and
the Prophet himself. They are thus able to carry with impunity the
title of Sharif.

Sidi *Ali is, according to the document,^ descended from Moulay
Abdeslem ben Meshish,^ the teacher of al-Shadhili himself. Sidi 'Ali
spent ten years in a comer of the Qarwiyyin University of Fez (near
the entrance which faces the Bab Semmarin), praying all night and
fasting all day. He kept to fiimself, never moving or speaking to anyone.
He repeated the shahada, or profession of faith, 18,000 times a day.
(Such supernumerary exercises occur in the lives of most Islamic
saints.) Then he moved to the village of Beni Rachid, on the south
face of the Jebel Zerhoun (Mount 21erhoun), where he was visited by
countless pilgrims from all over Morocco. They were careful to keep
a respectful distance and never to sit down near him or talk to him.

* The content of the document was translated and paraphrased for me fay die
son of one of the lineage heads of the iviilad ("children of") Sidi 'Ali.

* To be consistent I spell "mulay" with an "ou" — mouUy — in both personal dtlet
and place names. Thns Monky Unas die aaint and Moulay Idriss mt vHbge are
speUed die nme wajr.

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THE SAINTS AND. THE ORDERS: THEIR HISTORY 23

He did, however, like to hear men talk of the Prophet; he would nod
his head up and down, and afterward rise and perform the l^adra, or
ecstatk: dance. Then when he no longer knew what he was doing, he
would recite ''Allah! Allah! Allah the eternal! Allah the adoiaUe!"
His head would spin, and he would begin to perform miiades. His fol^
lowing increased. He never turned horn his path until his death in
other 1131 or 1135 h.j. (1718/19 or 1722/23 aj>.). All the inhaUtants
of Meknes, Moulay Idtiss, and the other villages of the Zerhoon came
to Beni Rachid for his burial During the period of mourning, his tomb
was visited eveiy day by mourners who founded lodges dedicated to
him all over Morocco and even in Algeria and Tunisia. He is said to
have been primarily influenced by Bu^bid Shar^ and to have influ-
enced, among others, Sidi Ahmed DghughL

The author of the Saltoat at-Anfas has written of Sidi *Ali in the
following words:

Of dieir number is Abo l-Hasan *A]i ben Hamdush, buried on tiie mountain
of the Zerhoon near Meknes. He is to be classed (May God have mercy
upon him) among the sheikhs of die mysdcal tradition in which the ecstatic
trance [^m/] is powerful. He liked mystical reunions [sanuf]^ ceremonies
having die same object \j^§dra\^ and panegyrics to the Frophec He had a
taste for instrumental music. . . .

At certain times, becoming like a lion, he hit people ^th whatever fell into
his hands, be it a stick, scones, some sort of vase, or other objects; no one
could approach him then. He accomplished a number of fean, celebrated
miracles. His followers and his oon^HDUons have rqwrted his ecstasies and
his mystical seances; his very numerous companions spread throughout
manv^ lands; each year with pious ardor they gathered around him. He had
zawiyas in all countries; and he fashioned a number of virtuous and benefi-
cent men, all of whom were illuminated [rnadjazib'] or at least had the
reputation of being so. (Paquignon 1911:533-534)

Of Sidi Ahmed's life even less is known. Although it has been claimed
that he came from the Beni Dghugli of the Dukkala tribe (Schocn
1937:93), the present leader, or rmzivar, of Sidi Ahmed assures me that
his ancestor in fact came from the Beni Hsen tribe and left family and
property there. I have also been told that he came from Mdari in the
Sahara.' Sidi Ahmed is said to have had three wives — one from the Beni
Hsen, a second from Fez, and a third from the viUage of Beni Ammar
on the Jebel Zerhoun — ^and to have left children by each of these

'I have not been tbie to locate MdaiL

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THE HAMADSHA

women. According to the desccndents of Sidi *Ali, Sidi Ahmed was
chosen by their ancestor from among the pilgrims to Beni Rachid to
be his servant or even his slave; according to the descendants of Sdi
Ahmed, their ancestor was chosen to be Sidi 'Ali's pupil and friend.
When Sidi 'Ali died, Sidi Ahmed is reported to have slashed his head
in despair. He died a few years after Sidi 'Ali and is buried in the
village of Beni Ouarad, a mile up the mountain from Beni Rachid. His
''chSdrea" are also in possession of a document which traces tfadr an-
cestry back to the Ihrophet. Rumor has it that they paid for this
genealogy with the few houses that Sidi Ahmed left them in Fez.

Not only is little known historically about either the descendants or
the followers of Sidi *Ali and Sidi Ahmed, but there is a curious absence
of legendary material about them — which contrasts, as we shall see,
with the rich legendary biography of the saints themselves.

Sidi "Ali is said to have died celibate and childless— a fact which ''his
children** are amdous to disguise and which accounts in part for their
contracting the schokur (torn Fez to do up their genealogy. Although
the scholar is said to have found a marriage certificate for Sidi *Ali in
the library of the shurfa of Ouazzane, it is commonly accepted, even
amonff S^ *A]i*s ''children'* themselves, that Sidi 'All died cMdless
and that those who claim him as their ancestor are in fact descended
from one of his brothers.^ Some of Sidi Ahmed's children are settled in
Beni Ouarad. Those who remained among the Beni Hsen have lost all
but nominal contact with those who settled in Beni Ouarad.

I have been able to learn nothing of the or^pod and spread of the
I^amadsha. The legends suggest only that Sidi TJi founded zawiyas on
his way from Bu^bid Sharqi in Marrakech to Beni Rachid,' and that
^giims and mourners who visited Sidi 'All's tomb established locoes
throughout Morocco. No mendon whatsoever is made in the legends of
the origin and spread of the brotherhoods dedicated to Sidi Ahmed
DghugfaL Montet (1902:12-13) lists the following brotherhoods which,
he d&ns, are rdated to the ^amadsha: Sidiqiyyin, the followers of
Sidi Muhammad es-Sadiq who came from the South and whose fol-
lowers hit their heads against each other during their ceremonies;
Riahiny the followers of Sidi l-'Amar Riahi of Meknes, whose followers
stick knives and forks in their stomachs without blood flowing; and the
Miliaria^ who follow Moulay Miliana. Quedenfeldt (1886:689) adds the
^Alamin, the followers of Sidi Qadur al-^'Alami of Meknes; the Sejm,

*To be sure, Sidi ^Aii's children prefer to keep their doubts about their saintly
anoesoy secret.
*See Chapter Three.

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THE SAINTS AND TH£ ORDERS; THEIR HISTORY 25

the followers of Sidi Hamid es-Sejini, also of Mekncs; and the Qasmin,
the followers of Sidi Qasim bu ^Asria. Neither author lists his criteria
for affihation, and none of the Hamadsha I talked to recognized any
affiliation with these orders, many of which are by now defunct. The
Miliana do not themselves acknowledge any ties with either Sidi 'AH
or Sidi Ahmed, and the *^Alamin, "a bourgeois order," would be loath
to admit any such ties.

It seems reasonable to assume that the two saints of the Zerhoun
consolidated practices of an ancient origin under a single banner and
integrated them into the particular brand of Islam characteristic of the
Maghreb. A legend recorded by Michaux-Bellaire and Cicorgc Salmon
(1906:336) is suggestive of how a local cult was integrated with the
larger cult to Sidi 'Ali. Sidi 'Ali Sanhaji, a disciple of Sidi 'Ali ben Ham-
dush who is buried in the valley of Lekhous near the city of Larachc,
was said to be the sheikh of Sidi Abderrahman al-Majdub, the putative
ancestor of the Wuiad Majdub — ^all of whom were, ia 1906, i^amadsha.

Sidi *A]i Sanhaji was a bandit who had already killed 99 people. At this
time another man was chasing after a voung girl who refused him. He swore
that he would have her dead or alive. The girl died and was buried. Sidi
'Ali Sanhaji was waiting around near the girl's tomb, to perform some mis-
deed. He saw the man approach the girl's tomb in the night and immedi-
ately hid himself and watched the man open the comb, tilce oat the virgin,
tear off her shioad, and tr>' to possess her. By a minde which Sidi *Ali
oonld not account for, the virgin placed her aim between the rapist and
hendf . The rapist cut off her ann. The virgin resisted with the other aim,
but this too was cat off. She closed her legs, but the rapist cut these off too.
'All became indignant and called upon God, saying that he could not find a
better occasion to kill his hundredth victim, who would be his last and with
which he would buy back the 99 others. He heard a voice which cried out
three times: "Acquit yourself, O Father of Acquittals." (It is from this that
Sidi *Ali Sanhaji has come to be known as the Father of Acquittals.) 'Ali
then killed his hundredth victim, buried the virgin again, after having
jdned together her Hmbs which had been cut off, and replaced her shiood.
Having covered her with eardi, he planted an oUve branch at the head of
the txmib and said: '*God Almighty, if tomorrow I find the branch gieen,
I shall know that you have accepted my vow and pardoned me."

The following morning, ^Ali found his stick transformed into an olive
tree covered with leaves. He fell to the ground and paid homage to God.
He got up enlightened and wandered among the tribes, preaching the
divine word. He stopped at Sehulijin, where the inhabitants built him a
zawiya which still exists. He died and was buried there. They built him a
qubba (mausoleum) which fell a short time later, and when a second qubba

Copyriyliiou iiiatenal

THE 9AMADSHA

was built and collapsed, Sidi 'Ali Sanhaji appeared to the muqaddim and
ordained that he should be without a qubba. (Micfaaax-Bellaire and Salmon
1906:356)

The maqaddim of the zawiya at Sehulijin was also the muqaddim of
the (lamadsha, and the zawiya itself was one of the meeting places of
the Qamadsha who were going to attend the annual pilgrimage to Sidi
*Ali at Beni Rachid. A second Hamadsha zawiya in the area had been
the home of one of Sidi 'Ali's descendants who had settled there for a
short time. In fact, many of the ^lamadsha lodges are reputed to have
been the home or burial place of one or more of Sidi 'AH's or Sidi
Ahmed's children, and are therefore the receptacles of some of tiie
saint's baraka.

It is impossible to determine how wideq>read membership in the
Qamadsha brotherhood was before the French arrival in Morocco in
1912. Reports of early French observers indicate teams in Fez (Aubin
1904:319; LeToumeau 1949:366), Rabat (Metcier 1906:122), Sal^
(Merder 1906:135), Tangier (Salmon 1904:105), Casablanca (''Casa-
blanca et les Chaouia*' 1915:63), Moulay Idriss (Canal 1902:136), and
in the Gharb (Michaux-BeUaire and Salmon 1906:334 et seq.). Oiptain
Garcia Figueras (n.d.) maintains that, along with the Isawa, the l^a-
madsha were the most important brotherhood in the western part of
the ^Muiish zone.

The presence in rural areas of the l^amadsha, as well as other popular
brotheriioods, should be emphasized, since it is sometimes assumed that
such orders are restricted to urban and shantytown settings. The fact
that all the members of the Wulad Majdub, mentioned in the legend
of Sidi 'All Sanhaji, were Hamadsha suggests that membership in
tribal areas often followed tribal lines and may at times have been
restricted to saintly lineages. I have heard that the Wulad Khalifa of
the Gharb, who like the Wulad Majdub claim descent from a saint,
today consider themselves to be Hamadsha, whereas at the time of
Michaux-Bellaire's investigations in 1913 they appear to have been pri-
marily members of another popular brotherhood, the Jilaliyya (pp. 282
et seq.). They were famous then, as they are today, for their complete
abandonment in acts of self-mutilarion during their ecstasies. Michaux-
Bellaire, generally a keen observer, also noted that many of the Hamad-
sha were black (p. 236). There is no mention of the Hamadsha among
the Berbers. The early reports also indicate that the Hamadsha of the
cities were then, as now, recruited primarily from the lowest strata of
urban society (Sohnon 1904:101; LeToumeau 1949:366; Aubin 1904:

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THE SAINTS AND THE ORDERS: THEIR HISTORY 27

318-319). The town of Moulay Idnss appears to have been an excep-
tion; there the Hamadsha came until leccfitly from ail strata of society
(ben Talha 1965:22). In Fez they appear to have been street porters,
blacksmiths, oven attendants, shoemakers, and tanners, and to have been
associated with their re s p e c ti ve guilds (LeToumeau 1949:366).

](^amadsha practices as they are described in these early rqx>rts
closely resemble what takes place today in Meknes. There appear, how-
ever, to have been public processions in the cities, during which the
Ilamadsha would work themselves into frenzies and slash at their heads
with sin^e- and double-bladed axes, clubs, iron balls, and other objects.
These processions, which usually took place before the annual pil-
grimage, or musemy to the Zerhoun, were often combined with the
processions of the ^sawiyya, whose mnsem took place on the Prophet's
birthday, a week before the Hamadsha nrasem. I have been told that in
Martakech at the time of the Isawa musem, the ^amadsha followed the
^wa, and then a week later during the musem of the Hamadsha the
tewa followed. In Sale the J^jbunadsha would parade through the streets
on the day preceding the musem on the Zerhoun, collecting money and
candles which were sold at the end of the day. The proceeds were given
to the descendants of Sidi 'Ali. At sunset, the educated ^jUmadsha —
there were about a hundred of these — ^would go to the zawiya to recite
litanies. The uneducated would return home. The following day the
^^amadsha fxom Rabat, across the river, would arrive in Sal6 at the
time of afternoon prayers and would perform the hadra there until
evening prayers, when they were served a meal with which the cere-
mony would end (Mercier 1906: 135-136). These processions may have
reinforced ties between brotherhoods or teams which were located in
neighboring cities or quarters and between which there was undoubt-
edly an element of competition® (ben Talha 1965:22).

There are no figures for membership in the Hamadsha brotherhoods
at the beginning of the Protectorate. Mercier (1906:122) cites figures
for Rabat (200 adepts) and Sale (350 adepts, which he breaks into 100
foipa and 2^0 khuddamy (1906:135), but these figures should not be

•Sec Part Two.

*It is not altogcdier cfear how Mercier distittgaialies dme two groups. He may
be referring to the distinction between foqra (adepts) and muhtbbin (devotees)
(see Chapter Five). Or perhaps the Hamadsha of the time distinguished between a
core group of at least semi-literate adepts and a peripheral group of illiterate
members who were not famOiar widi die litanies and oaier esoieiic matters. Sodi
distincdons are not uncommoa in the AJgeiian brodierhoods (Dqxnt and Gop-
polani 1897).

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THE 9 AM ADS HA

taken too seriously — for, as we will see, membership is impossible to
determine without defining exactly what we mean by it. Mercier's
figures suggest, nevertheless, that there were many more Qamadsha in
Rabat-^6 in 1906 than there are today.

The same criticism is applicable to George Draque's report in 1938
(p. 122). The Hamadsha appear then to have been the ninth largest
fai:otherhood in Morocco, numbering about 3400. This figure is broken
down for region:

Oujda none

Taza none

Fez 822

Mekoes 1161

Port hyvaty (Kenitia) 552

Rabat 221

Casablanca 1 34

Mazagan (Mohammedia) 136

Safi 192

Central Atlas 27

Marrakech 120

Tafildt 24

Owifim Alg^ro-Marocauis 10

These figures, which presumably refer to both the ^Alkliyyin and the
Dghughiyyin, are undoubtedly low; they do give, however, some idea
of the distribution of the ^amadsha in Morocco, and support the opin-
ion of other observers and of the (laroadsha themselves.

Although I have made no attempt to number the ](Jamadsha in Mo-
rocco today, I was provided with lists of about 40 teams from the
leaders of both brotherhoods.' This number should not be taken too
seriously either. The leaders were reluctant to admit that some of the
teams were defunct and that Dghughiyyin and *Allaliyyin were com-
bined in others, such as in the Marrakech lodges. Moreover, they did not
list "renegade" teams which did not show them great allegiance, like

■According to the list provided for the 'Allaliyyin, there were teams in Asila,
Casablanca, Ceuta, Demnat, £1 Jadida, Essaouira, Fez, Ksar el Kebir, Larache,
Marrakech, Meknes, Moulay Bcnichaib, Rsbat, ^ifi, Sali, Tamazd (Ait Baha),
Tangier, Taroudant, and Tetuan. Marrakech was said to have 2 teams and Fez 3.
The list for the Dghughi)'yin included Casablanca, Fez, Ksar el Kebir, Marrakech,
Meknes, Moulay Idriss, Moulay Yacoub, Ouazzane, Rabat, Sale, Tangier, and
Tetuan. Marxakech, Moulay I^nss, and Moday Yacoob each had 2 teams, and
Fez).

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THE SAINTS AND THE ORDERS: THEIR HISTORY 29

the seven teams operative in the shantytowns of Meknes and others in

the Gharh, or Western Plains.

On the basis of the figures I obtained for Meknes and from casual
observations of the Hamadsha in other parts of Morocco, I am able to
State that membership in the Hamadsha brotherhoods is today smaller
than it was at the turn of the century, especially in the cities of Fez,
Rabat, Sal^, and Tangier, and that the Hamadsha are most active in
Meknes, the Gharb— especially in the area of Sidi Slimane, Dar- bel-
Amri, and Sidi Yahya du Rharb — and on the Jebel Zcrhoun. The
*AlIaliyyin are more numerous than the Dghughiyyin. The Hamadsha
appear to be less active in the old quarters of the cities than in the
shantytowns. This pattern generally holds true for other "popular"
orders such as the Isawiyya, the Jilala, and the Miliana. One must be
careful, however, not to assume that membership is increasing in the
shantytowns. I have found that the majorit)^ of Hamadsha in the
Meknes bidonvilles, for example, were Hamadsha before they came to
the city or were at least familiar with their practices, and that there arc
comparatively few recruits among the second-generation inhabitants of
the shantytowns. Since the oldest of these slums is only about 40 years
old, no definite patterns can yet be discerned.

Copy riyt ilea material

The Legends

Although the lives of both Sidi 'Ali and Sidi Ahmed are poor in histori-
cal fact, they are, like the lives of most Moroccan saints of any im-
portance, rich in legend. The legends themselves are rooted in a his-
torical reality which has been greatly elaborated and distorted by the
addition of popular themes. These themes, or traits ftottants, as the
BoUandisc Hippo lyte Delehaye has called them, appear to be limited in
number and to recur again and again in the lives of not only the Moroc-
can saints but of saints throughout the Islamic world (Voinot 1948;
Goldziher 1880). Like the Christian saints and martyxs, the Islamic
saints appear to have lost their individual character in their legendary
form. Referring to Christian saints, Delehaye (1955:23) writes:

Ainsi d^uill^ de leor tndividualit^, isol& en qnelque soite du temps et de
Vespace^ enlev& i leor cadre nature!, les peisonnages hiscoriques prennent
dans Tesprit du people une forme in^e et sans consiscence. Au portrait
vivant et nettement caracceris^ que nous a legue ThistDire se substitoe un
etre ideal qui n'cst que la personnificaticHi d'une abstracdon; au lien de
i'individu, le multitude ne comialt que le type.

If, as Delehaye (1955:2) maintains, one of the hallmarks of the Chris-
tian hagiographic l^^end is the goal of edification, we must be careful
not to attribute the same goal to the Moroccan legends. The saint, as
we have noted, is not considered a ivali by virtue of his exemplary life
but by virtue of the miracles he has performed. His life, in legendary
form, is in fact oftoi little more than a list of such miracles, which are
considered to be proof of his saintliness. Biirhan is often used by the
uneducated Moroccan as a synonym for miracle (karama), but it usu-
aUy means "manifest evidence," "decisive and irrefutable proof," or
''dear demonstration.*' It also carries with it the Koranic connotation

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THE LEGENDS

of "shimng light*' or "brlUiant manifestatioii'* (Gardet 1960:1326). The
legends create wonder and awe in the individual and affiim the position
of the saint, whose role is of central importance in the fives of his
devotees. The saint, an inexhaustible font of baraka, serves not only to
effect cures, to eliminate barrenness, and to control the jnmi and other
spirits, but also as a reference point by which much of reaUty, especially
in its spatial and tenqwral dimensions, is organized. The antnial jnl-
grimages--and individual ones as welt— mark the flow of time; diiec-
tions are often given by reference to saints* tombs (cf. Eliade 1965:
21-^8).

The legendary versions of a wa^ saint's life vary from region to
r^ion, hom individual to individual, from circumstance to drcom-
stance. There are, to be sure, certain constant themes which recur again
and again; the very consistency of these themes often appears to be
less a product of die historical matrix upon which the legend is built
than upon a theme's reflection of sodal and psychological tensions. It
is important, however, not to overemphasize a social and psychological
anal}^ of die content and structure of the legends themselves at the
expense of their rhetorical and demonstrative functions. Their reflec-
tion, both in structure and content, of the Moroccan (and the individ-
ual's) social and psychological background only strengthens their per-
suasiveness.

The legends are told over and over again in marketplaces, among
friends and members of religious orders, and at the saints' tombs and
lodges. Most often, to demonstrate or emphasize a particular point, onl^
episodes of the lives are told. Throughout my field notes there are
fragments from the lives of Sidi 'Aii and Sidi Ahmed which were in-
troduced into a conversation to convince me of one or another truth:
the greatness of one of the saints, the superiority of Sidi *Ali over Sidi
Ahmed, Sidi 'Ali's dependency on Sidi Ahmed, the curative power of
one of the saints, or his special control over the jnun. These examples
often reflected tensions that were at play within the society at large or
within the individual himself and which were corroborated in the
course of the interview. They appear to have served a symbolic-inter-
pretative function for the narrator.

The Legendary Cycle

I have chosen to present here the most complete legendary life of
the two saints that I obtained. It was told to me by the then recently-
appointed muqaddim of the zawiya of Sidi ^Ali in Meknes, Sidi Mo-

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hammed Touijer, who had developed a very strong sense of respon-
sibility toward my worit and was amdous to make a good impression.
It is therefore more ordered and complete than any odier legend that I
have collected. Told, as it is, from the point of view of a f dbwer of
Sidi fAli, it tends to play up the importance of Sidi 'AH with respect
to Sidi Ahmed— a rcdiecdon of the social and economic competition
between the descendants and followers of the two saints. I have in-
dnded in notes which follow the legend both Muqaddim Touijer's and
my own explication of obscure parts of the legend, as well as important
variations I have recorded at other times.

Sidi *AU vm cad to Moulay IsnuSl, Mmday IsnuSl nvas a ferocious
mm who cm off the beads of Uars* One day he ordered Sidi ^AH to
fetch Btfabid SbarqL ^d$ *AU went to Sharqi mth bis troops, Sharqi
asked Sidi *AU if be bad come to get him, Sidi *AU ansvtered that he had,
Sharqi then gave Sidi *AU a band-miU and told him to turn it, Sdi *AH
turned the miUy and when be stopped, the ndU continued to turn on
its own, ^di *AU threw some gridn into the milL A black woman came
up to him and exclaimed that the mill was grinding the grain by itself,
Sidi *AU told the vwmm to shut up md cursed her bUnd, The woman
immediately became blind. When Sharqi saw that the woman was in
fact blind, he threw Sidi 'Ali out and immediately fell ill and vomted
into a pail. Then he ordered the blind ivoman to get rid of his vomit.
Feeling her way along the wall, she took the pail to the door, ivhere-
upon Sidi ^Ali, ivho had been hiding there, grabbed the pail and drank
all of the vomit. This is how he got the remainder of his baraka from
Bu'abid Sharqi.

Then Sidi ''Ali began a long trip and arrived at the ^Ayn Kabir [the
Great Spring] and sat down.

Someone came up to Sidi 'AIL His name was Sidi Ahmed Dghughi,
Sidi ^Ali told him to heat some water so that he cotdd loash for his
prayers. Sidi Ahmed asked if Allah would give him baraka if he did
this. Sidi ^Ali assured him that He would.

At this time the son of Moulay Isnml, 'Abdelhaqq^ was in the habit
of shooting arrows into passersby. Before killing them, he would invite
them in to drink some buttermilk. Then he would shoot them. Sidi ''AH
told Sidi Ahmed to go to the palace to do something about this. Sidi
Ahmed answered that he could not because the palace ivas so far away.
Sidi ^Ali told him to close his eyes. When he opened thei?!, he found
himself in front of Moulay IsmaiVs palace. ^Abdelhaqq called him in
and offered bim some buttermilk, Sidi Ahmed drank a whole pail of

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btmenmlky then a second, and then a third. Nothing happened. His
stomach did not explode. It was not even swollen. A fourth pail stiU
remained. Sidi Ahmed offered it to ^AbdeUfoqq, who drank it. Then
Sidi Ahmed shot ban with an arrow.

The soldiers ran to Moulay Ismail and told him what Sidi Ahmed had
done, Motday Ismail ordered the soldiers to get both Sidi ''AH and Sidi
Ahmed. Both men refused to come. When Moulay Ismail heard this,
he ordered his soldiers to bring them by force, to drag them all the
way if necessary. The soldiers returned to Sidi ''Alt, who asked them
if the sultan wanted hi?n to come alone or with his friends. The sol-
diers returned to Motday Ismail to ask whether or not he wanted Sidi
^AU alone or vntb his friends, Moulay Ismail answered, ^'Tell him to
come with bis ynonkeys and dogs," The soldiers returned and told Sidi
^AU to bring his ''monkeys and dogs." As Sidi 'AH started to get up, the
mountain bent ooer and rocks began to slide down. The soldiers told
Sidi 'AH not to move. They loould have to ask the king what was to
be done. Moulay Ismail answered, "If he has so much baraka, let him
take my oil to Mecca." The road to Mecca was blocked at the time,
and Motday Ismail could not send oil there.

The soldiers returned to Sidi ''AH and told him what the sultan had
said. The saint instructed them to bring him the oil, which they brought
in skin bags and poured down the throat of the reclining saint. Then,
as they were on their way back to the palace to fetch more oil, a mes-
senger arrived from Mecca to tell Moulay Ismail that the oil had
already arrived safely.

Lalla ^Auda, one of Moiday IsnjaWs wives, heard about Sidi "AWs
miracles and wanted to visit him because he had so ?nuch baraka. She
had 7wt had any children and hoped that the sai?it would be able to
help her. Moulay 1s7}ia'il sent her with sorne slaves and told them that
he njDonld have both her head and theirs if they were not all back by
sunset. When Lalla 'Auda arrived, she found Sidi 'AH asleep. She woke
him a?jd explained that she was in a hurry. Sidi 'AH told her 7iot to
worry. She had plenty of time, he said. Lalla 'Auda remained at the
saint's until there were only fifteen minutes to stinset. Then Sidi 'AH
ptdled Moulay IsmaiVs hand all the way from Mekiies to massage her
belly so that she would have children. When one of the slaves saw Sidi
*Ali massaging his masters wife's belly, he started to protest, but Sidi
^Ali told him to shut up or he would have hi?n shot. Then Sidi 'AH
dismissed Lalla 'Auda, telling her to say when she arrived in Meknes,
"O, Sun, set and may Allah be thanked."

When she arrived in Meknes, she found the whole city in an uproar.

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Everyone ivas ivondering why the sun had not set. Moulay Isrmil him-
self ivas staring at the sun! Lalla ^Atida asked him what was wrojig and
then told him what Sidi 'AH had said. He ordered her to repeat the
words, and then the sun set. Moiday Ismail then turned to his slave and
asked him what he had done when Sidi 'AH had massaged Lalla 'Aiida's
belly. The slave answered that he had tried to stop him. Moulay Ismail
cried out, ''You fool. It was my hand.'' He ordered his soldiers to load
their guns and shoot the slave. This they did.

Sidi 'AH turned to his side and found Sidi Ahmed there. He told him
to go to the Sudiin to get the hal. Sidi Ahmed answered that it was far
away. It was at least a six-months' journey. Sidi 'AH told him to close
his eyes, and when he opened them he found Imnself in front of the
palace of the king of the Sudan. Sidi Ahmed entered the palace, where,
praise be to God, the soldiers were all asleep. There he found cm
*awwad [a short reed flute], a daff [a square flat drum]y and ^A'isha
Qandisha [a she-demon, or jinniyya, to whom the Hamadsha are de-
voted]. Sidi Ahmed took them with htm. Then the soldiers and the
king awoke. The king asked them where his ^anmvad, his daffy and
^Atsha Qandisha had gone. The soldiers said they did not know and
assured him that no one had entered while he was asleep. The king
told them that it must have heen Sidi Ahmed who did it, and ordered
them to follow the saint to the ^Ayn Kabhr.

When Sidi Ahmed found out that the king knew it was hCy he seM
a message by pigeon to Sidi *Ali to pray for him so that he would not
be taken prisoner. Because of the baraka of Sidi *AU, the soldiers were
aU turned into frogs. When the king died, Ids body was taken to the
*Ayn er-Rjal at Moulay Idriss and buried. After Ms burial, whenever
the inhabitants of Moulay Idriss prepared couscous or tajin [stew],
frogs jumped from their plates. They brought a sacrifice to Moulay
Idriss, who woke and told them that they had brought the sacrifice to
the wrong person, that they should go to ^di *Ali ben ffamdush The
townspeople then went to ^di *AU and told him that frogs were jump-
ing aU over the place, Sidi ^AU asked them who had sent them, and
when he learned that it was Moulay Idriss, he instrttcted them to return
to their village. There they would find a man dressed in a darbala [a
tattered and patched cloak], sleeping. They were to ask him his ad-
vice, and he would teU them whit to do. They found the man, woke
him, and asked him if it was he who had let out all the frogs. The man
asked them who had sent them, and when they told him that it was
Sidi ^AU, he told them that they should work thebalof^ ^AU, The
people agreed to do tins and have made sacrifices to Sidi ^Ali ever since.

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One day Sidi Ahmed went to fetch water for Srdi *AU, When he
returned, he found the saint dead. He began to hit bis bead tottb bis
bands, crying *^ Allah! The saint is dead!" Since that time there has been
the gwal [drum] and the head-dashing.

Explication of the Legends
I win now consider the various sections of the legend in some detail.

Sidi 'All was caid to Moulay IsmaH Moulay Ismafl was a ferodons man
v/ho cut off the heads of liars. One day he ordered Sidi fAli to fetch

Bu'abid Sharqi. Sidi 'AH went to Sharqi \ndi his troops. Sharqi asked Sidi
*Ali if he had come to get him. Sidi ^AU answered that he had. Sharqi then
gave Sidi ^Ali a hand-mill and told him to turn it. Sidi 'All turned the mill,
and when he stopped, the mill continued to turn on its own. Sidi "^Ali threw
some grain into the mill. A black woman came up to him and exclaimed that
the mill was grinding the grain by itself, Sidi *Ali told the woman to shut
up and cursed her blind. WTien Sharqi saw that the woman was in fact
blind, he threw Sidi 'All out and immediately fell ill and vomited into a paiL
Then he ordered the blind woman to get rid of the vomit. Feeling her way
along the waU, she took the pail to the door, whereupon Sidi *A]i, who had
been hiding there, grabbed the pail and drank all of die vomit: This is how
he got the lemamder of his banks from Bu^bid ShaiqL

The legend begins typically in the middle of Sidi 'Ali's life, at the
time when he is about to obtain the "remainder*' of his baraka. We are
not told where Sidi 'Ali came from or how he became Moulay Ismail's
caid. When questioned about this, the muqaddim explained that Sidi
'Ali was a descendant of Moulay Idriss (d. 791 AJX) who is popvdarly
considered to have brought Islam to Morocco; he founded the first
Moroccan d3masty. (Moulay Idriss is also buried on the Jebel Zerhoun,
midway between Fez and Meknes, and just above the Roman ruins of
Volubilis.) The muqaddim then corrected himself and explained that
&di 'Ali was, in fact, bom in Mecca and came West with Moulay
Idriss and Moulay Idriss' freedman Moulay Rachid, both of whom
stopped at the village of Moulay Idriss while Sidi *Ali went on to Beni
Rachid. He could not explain how Sidi 'All became Moulay Ismail's
caid.

Although the lives of Sidi *Ali and the sultan Moulay Ismail (d.
1727), the founder of the city of Meknes, did overlap, it should be
noted that Moulay Ismail is a stock character in many of the hagio-
graphic legends. He is reputed for his extreme and arbitrary crudity.

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wliich is usually expressed in terms of promiscuous beheadings. Often
—and later in the muqaddim's account itself — he is seen as a protagonist
to the saint — an expression, perhaps, of an incipient schism between the
secular and the sacred order of things, or simply Moulay Ismail's em-
phasis on the strong-man aspect of his role as sultan, rather than on the
holy-man aspect (cf. Geertz 1968:53). It may also be proof of Sidi
*Ali's power over as virile a figure as the sultan (who beheads his an-
tagonists). That Sidi 'Ali is seen as an emissary of Moulay Ismail is
unusuaL The muqaddim may have wished to emphasize the saint*s im-
portance and therefore identified him with Moulay Ismail, whose
strength he admired. Perhaps he wanted to begin his tale as the heroic
tales of kings and warriors recounted by professional storytellers in
marketplaces and cafes begin.

Interpretation of the episode is difficult. Unlike other versions of
the passage of baraka from Bu%bid Sharqi to Sidi ^Ali, which conceive
of it as a friendly gift, the muqaddim has emphasized the competitive
element. But in his interpretation he suggests--and thereby contradicts
himself— a more friendly aspect. Origi^y he described the episode
as a compedtion between the two saints. First Bu*abid Sharqi performs
a miracle (burhan): he makes the mill turn on its own. (The muqad-
dim later added that it was only after Sharqi had touched Sidi 'All's
arm that the mill turned on its own.) Then Sidi 'Ali also performs a
burhan: he blinds the black woman. The muqaddim saw no wrong in
this. When I asked him why Sidi 'Ali blinded the woman, he answeried:
'^ell, for example, there is an old man sitting down. A litde boy
comes up to him and asks what he is doii^. The old man tells the boy
to scram. Then the old man curses the child." Sidi *Ali was presumably
irritated at the black woman for bothering him, for pointing out the
strength of Sharqi's baraka, and he cursed her. Still, even when pressed,
the muqaddim could not conceive of the two saints being jealous of
each other.

Sidi 'Ali did not stay at Sharqi*s in order to deceive the saint. He
remained, the muqaddim explained by adding a new scene to his ver-
sion, because his warriors had left with the horses. They thought their
caid was dead. Sharqi himself knew that Sidi 'Ali was at the door wait-
ing, and would drisJc the vomit. He had seen that Sidi *Ali had a lot
of baraka and wanted to give him his own baraka before he died.

The conception of the passage of baraka^^e master-disciple rela-
tionship — by the oral incorporadon of vomit, polluted water, bath-
water and other foul materials occurs frequently in the legends of vari-
ous Moroccan saints. In another version of the same story, Sidi 'Ali

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comes to work for Bu'abid Sharqi as a water-carrier and not only drinks
the water that drips from Sharqi's water-sack — Sharqi himself is a
water-carrier who takes no money for the water he carries — but drinks
the water with which the saint has washed himself before his prayers.
Sometimes, however, the baraka is passed to the saint in the form of
bread — bread being a recurrent symbol for baraka in both legend and
ritual. Sidi 'Ali works in disguise for Sharqi because "Sharqi had de-
stroyed Sidi 'Ali's papers" as a water-carrier; and he makes the mills
of eighty of Sharqi's women turn on their own. A Negro woman tells
Sharqi; Sidi 'Ali blinds the woman; and Sharqi, recognizing Sidi 'Ali
as a saint, gives him two loaves of bread and tells him that he will obtain
the rest at Moulay Idriss. At Mouky Idriss, Sidi "Ali encounters forty
saints guarding the bread for him.

Then Sidi 'All began a long trip and arrived at the ^Ayn Kabir and sat down.

The muqaddim was ignorant of Sidi 'Ali's adventures as the saint
traveled from Sharqi's to the "^Ayn Kabir. He simply stated that the
saint wandered from village to village, gathering followers and found-
ing lodges. The *Ayn Kabir, or Big Spring, is a spring that flows from
the cliffs just below Sidi 'Ali's tomb in Bcni Rachid and is believed to
contain much baraka. It is visited by pilgrims to Sidi ^Ali's tomb who
either drink the water, take a little home, or bathe in its waters. The
muqaddim explained that the water was not filled with baraka until
the saint had bathed in it.

Although the muqaddim himself knew nothing of what happened
to Sidi *Ali on his trip to the "^Ayn Kabir, a number of episodes con-
cerning this period were told to me by other informants. They are all
concerned with Sidi *^Ali's acquisidon of baraka or with his recognidon
as a saint.

According to one version, Sidi 'AU drank all of the water in Sharqi's
water-bag. The saint had been in the habit of giving a little of the
water— a little of his baraka — to fony people each year, but Sidi 'Ali
took it all for himself. Sharqi ordered his men to chase Sidi *Ali ail the
way to Tadla, if need be, and assured them that they would die if Sidi
*Ali ever returned to Marrakech, where Sharqi was living at the time.
Sidi 'Ali fled to Fez to stay with Sidi 1-Husa\ n, who was dying and
surrounded by forty saints. Sidi 'Ali stood at the door and drank Sidi
l-Husa>Ti's vomit. When the saint heard about this from his serving
women, he cried praise to Allah and died in peace as the other saints
filed out of his room.

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Sidi *Ali then went to the Qarwiyyin Univcrsit}^ at Fez — or so this
particular version continues — and sat down in a comer praying and
spitting. He did not move for many years. The scholars of the univer-
sity grew suspicious. One of them, a member of the well-known ben
Suda family of Fez, decided to chase him out; but somehow, every time
he approached the saint, he would forget h^ purpose. One night ben
Sada dreamed that the sultan, the royal guard, and the army were in
the university courtyard. The sultan was holding out a loaf of bread
to the scholars and his warriors; but each time one of them tried to take
the bread, he was curiously stung. Finally, when all had tried, only Sidi
*Ali remained. He stood up, took the bread, and left the university for
Beni Rachid. When ben Suda awoke, he rushed to the university and
discovered Sidi 'All's comer empty. Then he knew that Sidi 'Ali was
indeed a saint.^

Sidi 'Ali also ^pent time with Sidi Qasim, it is said, in the town of
Sidi Kacem in the Gharb, where he worked as a gardener for four or
five years and never touched any of his master's fruits. He lasted con-
tinually. One day Sidi Qasim was entertaining guests and asked the
gardener to bring him some good pomegranates. Sidi 'Ali, who never
touched the fruit, could not tell a good pomegranate from a bad one
and simply brov^ht in the biggest pomegranate he could find. The
fruit was spoiled. Sidi Qasim then oiUed his gardener and asked him
why he had chosen a bad pomegranate. When the saint explained that
he could not distinguish because he had never tasted one, Sidi Qasim
realized that Sidi 'Ali was in fact a saint.

Someone came up to Sidi 'AIL His name was Sidi Ahmed DghughL Sidi

'Ali told him to heat some water so that he could wash for his prayers.
Sidi Ahmed asked if God would give him baraka if he did this. Sidi *Ali
assured him that He would.

The muqaddim expanded this episode in his explanation. When Sidi
*Ali arived at the 'Ayn Kabir, he was visited by people from all over
Morocco. Once a particularly large group of pilgrims arrived. Sidi *Ali
saw Sidi Ahmed in their midst and called him out to work for him.
He saw that he was devout; his heart told him that Sidi Ahmed should
work for him.

The descendants of Sidi Ahmed Dghughi are always careful to point
out that Sidi Ahmed was not Sidi 'AU's servant or slave but a friend

^ My informants were not so much awed by the fact that Sidi ^Ali was able
to take the bcead as by his afaili^ to Deoiain immobile for yeais.

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and an equal. Sidi ^Ali is often seen as dependent on Sidi Ahmed in the
legends told by them. Once, for example, when members of Sidi
Qastm's family were jealous of Sidi 'Ali, they tried to poison him with
a couscous made with snakes.^ (Snake meat is considered poisonous in
Morocco.) Sidi Ahmed warned his master. As it turned out, Sidi 'Ali
ate the couscous anyway, and the skins of his enemies began to peel off.
Most of the legends about Sidi Ahmed are concerned with the missions
he performed for Sidi ^Ali, although his descendants have recounted
several which do not involve Sidi 'AH. Two of these are about Sidi
Ahmed's conflicts with the canonists of Fez (the Sufi versus the Hilama).

While Sidi Ahmed nm in FeZj the scholars asked him to give a dis-
coune on prayer and other religious matters, Sidi Ahmed said^ '^All that
is necessary is a silo of wheat and a silo of barley. The scholars did
not understand. Sidi Ahmed then invited them into his house^ which
he locked and in which there ivas no food. For three or four days the
men talked of prayer and other religious matters. Finally they began
to ask for food, but Sidi Ahmed simply replied: "Continue your dis-
cussion" Finally they became so hungry that they could not even say
their prayers. Then they realized the wisdom of Sidi Ahmed* s words.
The proverb, ^'Without bread there is neither prayer nor devotion^"
comes from this.

The scholars of Fez did not believe that Sfii Ahmed was a saint. **You
say,** they said, *^that you can make a camel of a man. Show us bow this
is possible,** ^di Ahmed asked them to bring prickly pears which were
stUl covered with spines. One of his followers who was in ecstasy
(bal) devoured the pears, spines, skin, and aU, and cried out that he
was StUl hungry and wanted bread. The scholars said that the bread
was stiU in the oven, Sidi Ahmed asked them to lead Inm and the
*^camer to the oven. The **camer* ate aU of the bread as the scholars
wmted for the two men to come out of the oven-house, and then they
escaped by a back door of the oven, winch opened mracuUmsly, When
the sebokars ^covered this, they pursued the two men aU the way to
Mehdiya near Kerutra to present their apologies.

This ^Msode refers to certain followers of Sidi Ahmed (and Sidi *Ali)
who act like camels and eat the spines or skins of prickly pears when in
trance. The reader should also be reminded that bread is a symbol of
baraka.

*Ia odier vexsioos the poisooeis aie Sidi 'AlTs tirochea.

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The diiid episode concerns Sidi Ahmed and Moulay Ismail, and
again reflects the conflict between saint and sultan that was noted
Mriier.

A tot of people considered Sidi Ahmed m maffdan became be would
become Uke a camel and eat spiny cactus wben he vrn in bid* The
people told this to Moiday IsmaU, who went to see him and challenged
him to a battle. Many of Sidi Abmed^s followers were afraid of Moiday
IsmaU and did not follow ban. The two *'amies" met at a bog between
Fez and Meknes, where the two leaders decided to fight it out ahne.
As they touched hands before the duel, the earth suddenly opened up,
forming a huge chasm around Monday IsmaSl, who then realissed that
^i Ahmed was a saint and surrendered to him,

I have heard this story told of Sidi 1-Hasan 1-Yussi of Sefrou too.

At this time the son of Moulay bmail, ^Abdelhaqq, was in the habit of
shooting arrows into passersby. Before killing them, he would invite them
in to drink some bnttemiilk. Then he would shoot them. Sidi 'Ali told Sidi
Ahmed to go to the palace to do something about this. Sidi Ahmed answered
that he could not because the palace was so far away. Sidi 'Ali told him to
close his eyes. When he opened them, he found himself in front of Moulay
Ismail's palace. ^Abdelhaqq called him in and offered him some buttermilk.
Sidi Ahmed drank a whole pail of buttermilk, then a second, and then a
third. Nothing happened. His stomach did not explode. It was not even
swollen. A f ourdi paH still remained, Sidi Ahmed oflered it to *Abdelhaqq
who drank it. Then Sidi Ahmed shot him with an arrow.

The solders ran to Moulay Ismail and told him what Sidi Ahmed had
done. Moulay bmaS ordered the soldiers to get both Sidi 'Ali and Sidi
Ahmed. Both men refused to come. When Moulay Ismail heard tliis, he
ordered his soldiers to bring them by force, to drag them all the way if
necessary. The soldiers returned to Sidi ^AW, who asked them if the sultan
wanted him to come alone or with his friends. The soldiers returned to
Moulay Ismail to ask whether or not he wanted Sidi 'Aii alone or with his
friends. Moulay Ismail answered, "Tell him to come with his monkeys and
dogs." The sddteis returned and told Sidi *A]i to bring his *'monke]n and
dogs.** As Sidi *Ali started to get up, the mountain bent over and rocks
be^ to slide down. The soldiers told Sidi *Ali not to move. They would
have to adc the king what was to be done. Moulay Ismail answered, "If he
has so much baraka, let him take my oil to Mecca." The road to Mecca
was blocked at the time, and Moulay Ismail could not send oil there. The
soldiers returned to Sidi ^Ali and told him what the sultan had said. The
saint instructed them to bring the oil, which they brought in skin bags and

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poured down the throat of the reclining saint. Then, as they were on their
way back to the palace to fetch more oil, a messenger arrived from Mecca
to cell Moulay Ismail that the oil had already arrived safely.

The muqaddini explained that since 'Abdclhaqq was the son of
Moulay Ismail, there was no one who could control him. He found
tills quite understandable. 'Abdclhaqq gave his victims buttermilk be-
cause it pleased him to see their stomachs swell and then to see the milk
come squirting out of their pierced stomachs. (Buttermilk is said to
contain baraka, and offering it is considered a sign of hospitality. It is
popularly believed to make the stomach swell and even explode if one
drinks too much of it.) ^Abdelhaqq did not shoot Sidi x\hmed because,
thanks to Sidi 'Ali, his stomach did not swell. The sultan's son had to
accept Sidi Ahmed's challenge because he was surrounded by viziers
and courtiers. It would have been shameful {hshuma) to refuse. Be-
sides, 'Abdelhaqq thought that he himself had so much baraka that his
stomach would not swell either. Sidi Ahmed killed 'Abdelhaqq because
— the muqaddim quoted the proverb — "People who kill others for no
reason will be killed by an emissary of God." The courtiers did not
take Sidi Ahmed prisoner because he had so much baraka.

The sultan called for both Sidi *^Ali and Sidi Ahmed, the muqaddim
continued, because thev were responsible for the death of his son. He
was angry and insulted Sidi 'Ali's friends by calling them "monkeys
and dogs." He wanted to see what miracles {burhans) Sidi *Ali could
perform, and gave iiim the impossible task of getting oil to Mecca.
When Sidi "^Ali drank the oil, it was not he but "others" who took the
oil to Mecca. The muqaddim seemed uncertain as to whether the
"others" were angels (?nala'ika) or jnun. Finally he decided on angels.'
The messenger who informed Moulay Ismail of the arrival of the oil
was also an "invisible."

This tale of Sidi 'All's drinking Moulay Ismail's oil in order to "send"
it to Mecca is popular in the area of Meknes. In another version,
Moulay Ismail calls for Sidi Ahmed; Sidi 'All takes his place because
he is not married and Sidi Ahmed is. When Sidi 'Ali arrives at the
palace, the sultan tells him that he must produce fifteen jugs of oil to
be sent to Mecca by the end of the week or he will lose liis head. Sidi
*AIi returns at the end of the week and drinks the sultan's and liis
family's bath water and vomits it out into the w aiting jugs as oil.

*This coftfnsioa is not as grett ts die Englidi gloBses for *Vnala!la'* nui **jiiaii''

suggest. The jnun are not necessarily evil and harmful. Many of my informants
Claused an^eb and |uiin in their taws and associatioas (cf. Chelhod 1964:67-92).

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Lalk *Auda, one of Moulay Ismail's wives, heard about Sidi ^Afi's miracles
and warned to visit him because he had so much baiaka. She had not had
any childrea and hoped that the saint would be able to help her. Moulay
Ismail sent her ividi some slaves and told them that he would have both

her head and theirs if they were not all back by sunset. When Lalla *Auda
arrived, she found Sidi 'All asleep. She woke him and explained that she
was in a hurry. Sidi "^Ali told her not to worry. She had plenty of time, he
said. Lalla *Auda remained at the saint's until there were only fifteen min-
utes to sunset. Then Sidi 'Ali pulled Moulay Ismail's hand all the way from
Meknes to massage her belly so that she would have children. When one of
the slaves saw Sidi 'Ali massaging his master's wife's belly, he started to
protest, but Sidi 'Ali told him to im up or he would have him shot Then
Sidi *AH dismissed Lalla *Auda, telling her to say when she arrived in
Mdmes, ''O, Sun, set and may AUah be thanked.** *

When she arrived In Melons, she found die whole city In an uproar.
Evcfyone was wondering why the sun had not set. Moulay Ismail himself
was staring at the sun! Lalla ^\uda asked him what was wrong and then
told him what Sidi ^Ali had said. He ordered her to repeat the words, and
then the sun set. Moulay Ismail then turned to his slave and asked him
what he had done when Sidi 'Ali had massaged Lalla ^\uda's belly. The
slave answered that he had tried to stop him. Moulay Ismail cried out, "You
fooL It was my hand." He ordered his soldiers to load their guns and shoot
the slave. This they did.

This e[Msode is one of the most popular in the life of Sidi ^Ali and
accounts for his title "Guide of the Sun" (gtnovfod sh-shamsh) or '^Caid
of the Sun** (qaUi sh-sbamsh), I have been told that if one looked at
Sidi 'All's knees, one could see the sun shining both by day and by
night.

The muqaddim corrected himself in his explanation. Lalk ^Auda
went to Sidi *Ali with only one slave whose name was Brahim. Lalk
^Anda wanted a son so that she could remam Mouky Ismail's favorite
wife. (^Auda means mare in Moroccan Arabic.) Sidi 'Ali could not
touch the woman's belly vrith his ovm hand, because then Mouky
IsmaH would never be able to touch her hunself . She would have be-
come taboo (fforam). The descendants of the saint still massage the
bellies of barren women, the muqaddim explained, and they receive
gifts every day from women who have then had children. Mouky Is-
mail had Brahim killed, even though the skve did not know that Sidi
*Ali was in fact massaging Lalla *Auda's belly with his master's hand,
because he had questioned the saint. The muqaddim seemed surprised

* According to the version of this legend cited by Herber, Lalla 'Auda was to
say: '^Continue your jouncy, O Sou, by the power of AUah" (1923:224).

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when I asked him if the fact that the slave did not know it was Mouky
IsmaiFs hand made any di£Ference. He assured me it did not.

Other versions of die episode suggest that Moulay Ismail was very
discontented with Lalla 'Auda because she had not borne him a son
and threatened to have her head if she did not conceive the following
day. That night, she dreamed of Sidi *Ali, and she visited him the fol-
lowing day. Sidi *AIi did not massage her belly but gave her a scarf
which she was to wear against her bdly, under her dodies.

Sidi "^Ali turned to his side and found Sidi Ahmed there. He told him to go
to the Sudan to get the fpal. Sidi Ahmed answered that it was far away. It
was at least a six-month's journey. Sidi "^Ali told him to close his eyes, and
when he opened them he found himself in front of the palace of the king
of the Sudan. Sidi Ahmed entered the palace, where, praise be to God, the
soldieis were all asleep. There he found an 'awwadf a doff, and *Alriia
Qandisha. Sidi Ahmed took them with him. Then die soldieis and the king
awoke. The king asked diem where his ^wwad, his dafif, and 'Aisfaa
Qandidia had gone. Hie soldiers said they did not know and assured him
that no one had entered while he was asleep. The king told them that it
must have been Sidi Ahmed who did it and ordered diem to follow the
saint to the ^Avti Kabir.

When Sidi Ahmed found out that the king knew it was he, he sent a
message by pigeon to Sidi *Ali to pray for him so that he would not be
taken prisoner. Because of the baraka of Sidi *Ali, the soldiers were all
turned into frogs. When the king died, his body was taken to the *Ayn
er-Rjal at Moulay Idriss and buried. After his burial, whenever the in-
habitants of Moulay Idiiss prepared couscous or tajin [stew], frogs jumped
from dieir plates. Th^ bxou^t a saciifioe to Moolay Idriss, who woke and
told them that diey had brought the sacrifice to die wrong person, that
they should go to Sidi 'Ali ben l^amdush. The townspeople then went to
Sidi 'Ali and told him that frogs were jumping all over the place. Sidi *Ali
asked them who had sent them, and when he learned that it was Moulay
Idriss, he instructed tliem to return to their village. There they would find
a man dressed in a darbala, sleeping. They were to ask him his advice, and
he would tell them what to do. They found the man, woke him, and asked
him if it was he who had lat ooc all the frogs. The man aslred diem mHbo had
sent them, and ^idien they told him it was SMi ^Ali, he told them that diey
should work the ^ of Sidi 'All The people agreed to do this and have
made sacrifices to Sidi *AIi ever since.

Sidi Ahmed's trip to the Sudan is considered to be the most important
episode in the legendary cycle, for it explains both the origin of the
hd, or ecstatic trance, into which the l^amadsha work themselves, and
the arrival of *Aisha Qandisha.

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*A!slia Qandisha is a she-demon, sometimes called a jinniyyay or fe-
male jinn, sometimes an '^afrita, or giant jinn-like creature, and some-
times she is considered to be quite different from either of these. She is
said to appear sometimes as a beautiful woman and sometimes as an old
hag, but always with the feet of a camel or some other hoofed animal.
Despite a widespread belief in 'Aisha Qandisha among the northern
Moroccan Arabs, the Hamadsha, as we shall see, are her special dev-
otees. They hold her responsible for their trance. Although her Su-
danese origin is almost miiveisaUy accepted, it fc^ been claimed that
she was in fact a woman and Sdi 'All's slaire and that when die was
buried she suddenly disappeared and was heard laughing. "I am here,"
she called out "I am (fead. Fve been carried away by my numduk
(jinn)." Some hold her to be the daughter of Sidi Shamharush, the long
of the jnun; and on at least one occasion I was told that her mother
was human and her ^ther Ighud, the shepherd of the wind (n^), who
carried her mother oft to the forest. This is said to explain why she has
both a human name, 'Alsha, and a devil's name, Qandisha*^ (Haimer
1968:52).

The muqaddim's version of the episode is the most complete I have
heard; the frog section is unique to him. (The jnun are often said to
take the form of fiogs.) Somedmes Sidi Ahmed is said to have gone to
the Sudan by way of Mecca. The Sudan refers to the area immediately
south of the Salmra and is considered by many Moroccans to be the
home of the haL I have been told that Sidi Ahmed found ^Alsha Qan-
disha in a place called Sakqia al-Hamra, probably in the northern part
of the Spanish Sahara. In another version, it is the jnun, alerted by the
whinny of Sidi Ahmed's horse, who pursue him. He blinds them by
throwing tar {^tttran) in their eyes, and then sand. This explains vrbiy
pilgrims to Sidi Ahmed's tomb take back a little earth {tuba) widi
them as protection from the jnun. The instruments referred to by the
muqaddim are not used by the Hamadsha today, but the muqaddim
claimed they were once played.® Often Sidi Ahmed is said to have
obtained ^Aisha not from the king of the Sudan but by pulling open a
cord which held a bundle of wood together^ and to have returned to
Sidi 'All followed by thousands of devotees including the most famous
saints of the land. In most versions Sidi 'Ali has died. He then makes

'See Oaxptti Eight for a more detailed account of 'Alsha Qandisha. See Jones

(1951:279-286) for similar myths.

•Sec Garcia-Barriuso (1941:105) for a description of the daff (deff).

^ The Hamadsha occasionally beat themselves with bundles of sticks (an example
of which may be seen in die Mus6e de rHomme in Paris), along with their other
instnmieiia of adf-mutnacion.

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THB LEGENDS

a pact ^th 'Aisha: she must never come near him. The man in the
darbala is claimed to have been Sidi 'All in disguise. He could not very
well himself have told the towiiq>eople of Moulay Idiiss to devote
themselves to his l^aL

One day Sidi Ahmed went to fetch water for Sidi 'Ali. When he returned,
he found the saint dead. He began to hit his head with his hands, crying
''Allah! llie saint is dead!" Since that time diere has been die gwal and the
head-slashing.

This version of the legend explains at least why the followers of Sidi
Ahmed slash their heads — self-mutilation during mourning is not un-
common in Morocco. It has been claimed that only Sidi Ahmed's fol-
lowers abandon themselves to such practices (Aubin 1SH)4:431), but in
fact the followers of both saints do, and other legends suggest that Sidi
*Ali himself also did so. Cat (1898:401) repons that the Hamadsha
slash their heads in commemoration of Sidi *Ali's putting his head back
together after it had been split open by a shell. Sidi *Ali is also said to
have pounded his chest while he said his beads (tasbih). The beads
were attached to a tree and every time a bead was passed the saint
would beat his chest (Herber 1923:225). I have heard neither of these
l^ends.

The general belief is that Sidi Ahmed, finding his master dead, first
washed and buried him and then climbed to the top of the Jebel Zer-
hoim, where he became so upset that he slashed his head with an ax
as he called out the names of all the saints. The people tried to calm him.
"You are lucky to be alive," they said. "You are lucky to have children.
These children will carr^^ on your blood and your baraka. You must
not be angry or sad. You will always have children. They will always
replace vou."

They told him that before Sidi "^Ali died, he said "For you Thursday,
for me Friday," by which he meant that Sidi Ahmed had inherited his
baraka and would be visited first, on Thursdays, at the annual pilgrim-
age, or Ttmsem. It has been said that the first musem took place when
Moulay Ismail came to Sidi 'Ali's tomb on the last day of the mourning
period (forty days after the saint's death). Sidi Ahmed lived for several
years — he would slash his head whenever he was falling asleep as he
prayed — and when he died, some say among the Beni Hsen, he was put
on a mule, as he requested, and carried as far as the mule would go.
The mule collapsed at Beni Ouarad, a mile from his master's tomb, and
it was here that he was buried and that some of his descendants settled.

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Although I was personally unable to learn of the origin of the instru-
ments with which the ^amadsha slash their heads, Herber gives the
following two leffsskdSf wMcli sccount for the use of the single- and
doabk-Uaded axes the Hamadsha traditionally employed and still use
dufing their annual pilgrimage. The first of these concerns Sidi Rahal,
a saint Vfho is buried southeast of Manakech in the town named after
him and who is the founder of the Ral^yyin brotherhood, whose
members are reputed for drinldng boiling water when in an entranced
state, and another saint, Sidi Ahmed 1-Ar^

Sidi Rahal was Hving on a mountm near Mamkech; he was a her-
tnaphrodite and had with him two chaste women who served him. The
sukan, having heard his smmliness praised, wanted to see him» He sent
two of his people to fetch him: one was Sidi ^AH ben l^amdush, the
other Sidi Ahmed l-Arusi, But these two were moved by his piety to
the point that they attached themselves to him and did not want to
return to Manakech. The sultan sent his soldiers for them, and they
were condemned to death. As they arrived at the place of execution,
Sidi Rafnd appeared in the skies, holding an axe which filled the spec-
tators vHth dread. He gave it to Sidi ^AU ben ffamdusb and told hhn
that, thanks to it, he should have no fear of anyone at all. Then he took
Ahmed l-Arusi Ify the belt and carried hhn off in fight. The bek tore,
UAruH fell into the {Valley of the] Sous, where he ended hb life in
rethremem. Sidi Ra(fal returned to his hermitage; Sidi *AU retired to
the Zerhoun, where he bequeathed his axe to his followers and died.
{Herber imaiS, fn. 1)

The origin of this legend is not given. The following one was told to
the author by an interpreter in Rabat.

^di *AU ben flamdush retired to the mountain, several kilometers
from Meknes, in order to lead a solitary life and to pray to God. Sev-
eral of his companions followed him. They lived on alms and nourished
themselves principally on the roasted heads of sheepy the bones of ivhich
soon formed a big pile in front of the cave in which ^di ^Ali and his
compamons lived. Every day, at sunrise and after prayers, Sidi 'Ali's
disciples gathered around him and began their dances which they did
not stop except during the hours of prayer and at meals.

One day, not seeing the arrival of their leader, the brothers were
taken ivith fear; none dared to go to learn the news of which they had
a foreboding; they took counsel and chose ^di ^Ali^s favorite disciple,

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who sat to bis right during the recitation to God. All trembting and
soaking with sweat, the elected one went to the cave of their venerated
leader; be reappeared soon, his mouth wide open, his eyes out of their
sockets, and threw himself on the sheep bones. He took a jau'bo?je and
bit bis bead saying: ''Allah/ Allah/ There is no God but AllahP* His
companio?7s, understanding the truth, hit themselves in imitation of
their new leader. Hence, the origin of the ax which *^is almost in the
shape of a jawbone." (Herber 1923:22S, fn. J)

Interpretation of the Legends

All of these legends may be analyzed on many different levels and
from many different theoretical perspectives. Some of the legends, for
example, appear to be explanations for certain ritual practices, such as
taking home a little earth from the tomb of Sidi Ahmed or slashing
one*s head with an axe "shaped like a jawbone." Others appear to reflect
primarily economic tensions, as between the descendants and followers
of Sidi 'All and Sidi Ahmed; politico-religious tensions, as between
Moulay Ismail and the saints; differences in theological perspective, as
between the canonists of Fez and the saints of the Zerhonn; or notions
of the relative Inqmrtance, the hierarchization, of saints— SSdi Ahmed,
Sidi 'Ali, and Monlay Idriss. I will be concerned, however, only with
those elements of the legends vi^iich are germane to an understanding
of the Qamadsha therapeutic ^^stem.' On the one hand, I will focus
on the image of the saint as expressed in his existential stance vis4-vis
certain significant elements widiin his life; and on the other hand, on
the passage of baraka-~dic curative force— from saint to saint.

Despite the fact that there is no fixed order of events in the legends
in general, a thematic analysis of Muqaddim Touijer's version of the
life of Sidi *Ali reveals a definite development, at the most literal level
of analysis, from the eariiest episode, which is concerned with Sidi 'Ali's
acquisition of baiaka, to the final one, which deals with the passage of
his baraka to Sidi Ahmed. Sidi Ahmed is recognized as a saint and is
responsible for the head-slashing of the fjamadsha. The intervening
episodes are concerned with Sidi *Ali*s recognition as a saint by various
other saints, canonists, and political figures such as Moulay I^aail, and
with his acquisition of disciples, such as Sidi Ahmed, and devotees, such
as the people of Moulay Idr^

'At this stage of inviesl%ation, my choice of "significant elements** may appear
aibtenuy, but later the reasons for my eekcdon should become sppaicnt.

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Each of the episodes appears, literally, to be concerned with the
relationship between the saints and some other significant figure. In
each of them the saint overcomes— or at least obtains the recognition
of — ^the other figure, his antagonist. The relationships are of power and
control The figures are saints — Bu'abid Sharqi, Sidi 1-Husayn, Sidi
Qasini, Sidi Rahal, and Moulay Idriss; intellectual leaders — the canonists
of Fez; political leaders — ^Moulay Idriss, Moulay Ismail, 'Abdelhaqq,
uid die king of the Sudan; military leaders — again Moulay Ismail; for-
dgners-^die king of the Sudan and his soldiers; women — the blind
servant woman, LaOa *Auda, and even 'Aisha Qandisha; servants — Sidi
Ahmed Dghughi; members of the **spiiit realm** — ^'Aisha Qandisha, and
the angels and jnun who help die saint said oil to Mecca; and the gen-
eral populace--the people of Moulay Idriss. Sidi 'All also has control
over nature. He is abte to defy the laws of nature by sending Sidi
Ahmed instantaneously to Meknes and even to the Sudan, by stopping
the course of the sun, and by changing soldios Into &ogs. Significandy,
none of the legends indicate Sidi 'Ali's rekdonship with God. He is,
of course, considered, like all saints, to be an intermediary between
man and God.

It is suggested that each of these figures represents or is symbolic of
a significant aspect of the Moroccan's experiential world, with which
he must enter into some reladon. These reladonships seem to be con-
ceived primarily in terms of dominance and submission. Dominance is,
of course, the ideal, and the saint is seen to be in a dominant position
at the end of each of the episodes. In this respect he overcomes all of
an individual's major social confrontations but two— the economic and
the sexual— which are not mentioned. The saint lives on alms. By choos-
ing the world of prayer and meditation, he has placed himself above the
concerns of a daily life which he, nevertheless, can master.

The Leitmotif of the legends is the passage of baraka. Baraka is the
essential quality and emanation of the saint. It is rooted in both the
physiological and social life of the Moroccan. Baraka passes from
Bu^abid Sharqi and several other saints to Sidi ^Ali, and then from Sidi
'Ali to Sidi Ahmed. The passage is disjunctive and does not involve
women. Usually baraka is passed either ^m father to son (and daugh-
ter) or from a highly endowed individual or place to a visitor or sup-
plicant. In the case of agnatic passage, I have been told that baraka is
carried in the semen itsdf. Women cannot pass on baraka. According
to the Moroccan Arabs, women do not contribute at all to the heredi-
tary background of the child; they are only a receptacle which receives

THE LEGENDS

the male seed. This seed is molded into the infant by angels who de-
scend into the womb in early pregnancy.®

Baraka that is passed from father to child is and remains contagious.
Baraka that is passed from an endowed person or place to a supphcant
can no longer be transferred. The fact that both Sidi 'Ali and Sidi
Ahmed were able to obtain it in its contagious and enduring form from
saints from whom they were not descended is exceptional. Their means
of obtaining it were equally unusual. In both cases the acquisitum of
baraka involved the feminization of the saint.

Sidi *Ah, who has an endowment of baraka in his own right, obtains
the remainder from Sharqi (and other saints). His innate endowment,
despite the muqaddim's subsequent retraction, enables him to acquire
it by deception; he blinds the slave woman and tricks the saint (who
is, nevertheless, aware of what Sidi 'Ali is doing). Whether it is Sidi
^Ali's own baraka or the baraka he acquired when Sharqi touched his
arm that is responsible for his ability to turn the mills automatically, it
is noteworthy that hand-mills are normallv turned by women. Sidi ''AU
demonstrates, thereby, his expertise in woman's \\ ork. He blinds the
slave woman for reveaUng his "miracle" to the saint; the saint is an-
gered, throws Sidi *Ali out, and falls sick. Sidi 'Ali obtains the baraka
by pulling the pail of vomit away from the blind woman and drink-
ing iO^

It is suggested that the oral incorporation of baraka is analogous to
insemination.^^ Indeed, material collected by free association related
baraka to semen. It is rumored that some saints and their descendants
cure sick women by having sexual relations with them; thev give them
their baraka directly. Semen is, according to the Moroccans of the
Hamadsha's background, produced by a "vein" in the man's back
which extends downward to the lumbar region. This vein converts

"Women — and not men — are, nevertheless, responsible for barren marriages, and
must take measures to insure their fertility. A woman may affect a child during
pregnancy. If she sees a dwaif or def<Mnned individml, her child wiU be bom vnm
the same deformirv'; if her husband does not cater to her longings for special foods
such as liver, and she should then scratch herself, her child will have a bilthinark
in the spot corresponding to the place where she scratched.

*The possible OedipsQ implications of Sidi 'All's blinding the slave woman (die
mother) for telling Sharqi (die fttdier) of his (die son's) micade (banka, semen)
will not be considered here.

"It may also be connected with nursing (milk is said to contain baraka) or
fantasies of felbdo (which is not normally practiced in Morocco). In all of tfacw
instances, power is obtained by ingesdi^ bodily secretions. This is a freipient
fanta^.

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blood into semen; blood itself is said to contain baraka and is frequently
employed in Moroccan cures and magical practices.

The fact that Sdi *AIi obtains his baraka by ingesting defilements is
not as strange as it mi^t first appear. It should be remembered that
sexual intercourse, for the Moroccan Arab, is an act of pollution.^* Un-
doubtedly the element of humiliation both on an individual level — ^man
made woman— and on a religious level plays a role here as welL The
saint, at any rate, becomes "pregnant ivith or by baraka" and is grad-
ually recognized as a saint This occurs during a period of gestaUan in
the University of Fez where he remains immobile and spits/^ or in Sdi
Qasim's garden. In both instances the episodes end with his recognition
as a saint. He alone is able to take the bread from the sultan; he has
resisted the pomegranate. Sidi *Ali "gives birth to himself' as a saint.
It should be noted that during the period of gestation Sidi *Ali per-
forms manly tasks-nneditation, prayer, spitting, gardening— and that
at tiie end he docs what even ministers and soldiers cannot do. Sdi *Ali
becomes a man. It is at this point that he retires to the Zerhoun and
encounters (gives birth to) Sidi Ahmed, who is instrumental in the
performance of his miracles and who finally, after bringing the female
demon 'Aisha Qandisha to the Zerhoun, inherits Sdi 'Ali's baraka.*^

The legend appears to minor two different developmental sequences.
On the one hand, it mirrors the process of impregnation, gestation
(birth),^* tiie raising of a son and heir who is able to bring home a
woman and to have offspring. On the other hand it mirrors the matura-
tion of man from his acquisition of baraka — ^the hero's quest for his
father— through a period of latency— the sojourn in the university or
in the garden — to the performance of a number of miracles which
establish his dominant position within society. It culminates in his death
and the bequeathing of his powers to an heir. The legend of Sidi 'Ali
appears to represent in a more manifest fashion the maturation of a

"It is curious to note that Sidi 'AH obtains baraka—* theoiedcaify impossible
feat — by ingesting vomit. Vomit travels the wrong way on a one-way street,

"Saliva has been equated with semen by psychoanalysts. I have found no evi-
dence for this symbofic eqoatioii in my- luoroccan maftsftal.

''Although I do not pofsue this line of thought, I should ISkt to po&it out that
many of the tasks performed by Sidi *Ali during his period of gestation are of an
other-worldly nature. In the end he becomes a saint who performs the hadra.
Siidi periods occur freqoendy in the lives of saints and mystics throughout die
world. The taaeat to which the sexual ambivalence expressed in die legend is
related among Miwoocan Arabs to the saindy role, the trance, etc., merits exam-
ination.

* Up to ditt point die se(|aence of events is also equivalent to Sidi 'All's rdiirtfa
as a samt who can pass on his baraka.

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maiif and in a more disguised fashion the birth cycle of a woman. The
male maturation process and the female birth cycle are thematlcally
intertwined and appear to be combined in the "rebirth" of Sidi 'Ali as
a saint who has contagious and heritable baraka.

From a psychological point of view, the legend is concerned with
the problem of male identity. It is a symbolic portrayal of certain sex-
ual conflicts and, if Betteiheim's (1955) theor)^ of the envious male is
correct, may indeed be expressive of the male's desire for female char-
acteristics and potentialities. It may serve as a schema — or partial
schema — for these conflicts or this envy. The male child must be im-
pregnated — feminized — in order to become a man. The child who
actively seeks his father's power (semen, virility, manhood— baraka,
miraculous power, saintliness) must play a passive role before the
father. Fenichel (1966:334) notes, in discussing the passive homosexual,
that the feminine man, who having identified with the mother becomes
anally fixated, is an analogous mechanism.

Actually, "feminine" men often have not entirely given up their striving to
be masculine. Unconsciously they regard their femininity as temporary, as
a means to an end; thev regard the condition of being a masculine man's
"feminine" partner as learning the secrets of masculinity from the "master,"
or depriving him of his secrets. In such cases, the passive submission to the
father is combined widi traits of an old and original (oral) love of the
father. Every boy loves his ftther as a model whom he would like to re-
semble; he feels himself the ''pqul*' who, by temporary passivity, can
achieve the ability to be acdve later on. This type of love can be called
apprentice love; it is always ambivalent because its ultimate aim is to replace
die master*

Not only does the legend suggest that at least some of the Hamadsha
are suffering from problems of male identity, but the parallels between
the mecbankm outlined by Fenichel and the legend of Sidi 'Ali suggest
further a passive homosexual attitude toward the father and an identifi-
cation with the mother (possibly with anal fixation). It is, of course,
not possible from the analysis of a legend to deduce a psychology; the
legend may serve only as a clue.^*^

The resolution of a possible Oedipal conflict in terms of passive
homosexuality is a dead end for the man anxious to have heirs (to

"I am, at this point, less interested in the psychological implications of the
legend— the legend as projective mafieiial— ihan in its tymbolio-interpietive Ibiio-
tioa for the individual bom into ft society in which the ^yamadsha, dieir cece-
mooies, and dieir beliefs are a {^ven.

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obtain and pass on baraka): no children can be produced. Sidi 'Ali
never gives birth to Sidi Ahmed. "Someone came up to Sidi *Ali. His
name was Sidi Ahmed." Nor does he bear any children, in legend or in
fact. The saint must become a man.*^ After a period of latency which
cohninates in a manly act, he is able not only to perform miracles —
the most notable is his resistance to the beheader, the castrator, Moulay
Ismail^® (again, curiously, through ingestion, this time of oil) — but
also to raise Sidi Ahmed and bequeath liim his power.

From a sociological point of view, the legend is an attempt to resolve
the conflict between two different endowments of baraka: institution-
alized baraka, which is passed from father to son (and daughter), and
personal baraka, which is inherent in the individual and Is not heritable.
Personal baraka is in many ways analogous to Webef s conception of
charisma (Gerth and MiUs 1958:245-252). This problem is of central
importance in nrach of Moroccan history. Clifford Geertz (1968:45)
has written:

The problem of who has baraka was indeed in some ways the central dieo-
logical problem (if that is not too elegant a word for an issue which rardy
rose above the oral and practical) in classical Morocco. And to it two major

danes of answers were given: what we may call the miraculou!: and the
genealogical. Maraboutism, the possession of baraka, was indexed cither by
wonder-working, a reputation for causing unusual things to occur, or by
supposed lineal descent from the Prophet. Or, as I say, by both. But though
the two principles were often, after the seventeenth century perhaps most
often, invoked togetlier, they were yet separate principles, and in the tension
between them can be seen reflected much of the dynamics of Moroccan
culture history.

Despite Sidi *Ali*s spiritnal genealogy (sUsUa), which is not men-
tioned in the legends, it appears that he is endowed with personal, or
miraculous, baraka, but not with the institutionalized and heritable

'■^ Dundcs, Leach, and ^^zkok (, 1970) suggest in their analysis of Turkish verbal
dueling that "the shift from the boy's female passive role fin homosexuality] to
the man's male active role is an intrinsic part of the process of becoming an adult
nude." Ahhou^ homosexuality is perhaps not as common in Morocco as in
Tuxkqr, it is by no means uncommon. There is considerable scorn for the adult
male who plavs the passive role. Adolescent boys who play the passive role SR
teased and are expected when they are older to assume the active role.

Freud (196): 109) notes that repudiation of die feminine atticude & **z lesok
of the struggle to avoid castration; it regularly finds its most emphatic expression
in the contrasting fantasy of castrating the father and turning him into a woman."
(Cf. Miner and De Vos [1960] for their findings on castration anxiety among
Algenan peasants)

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THE LEGENDS

kind. His crip to Bu'abid Sharqi — and the other saints — is an active it*
tempt to obtain the latter. This is by definition impossible. A man can
obtain the baraka of a saint, but this is not heritable. A resolution is
attempted: Sidi 'Ali becomes as a woman and is impregnated with the
saint's baraka. If, by some miracle, he were able to bear a son and found
a lineage, the lineage would not be his own since a woman, according
to the Moroccan Arabs, cannot pass on baraka (or any other traits).
To become lineage head he must again become man, but then he can-
not father children who will inherit his baraka, since his baraka is not
of the institutionalized sort Self-inflicted androgyny has its ideological
limits.^® It is an attempted resolution, as L6vi-Strauss (1963b) might
suggest, between two polar opposites. Another resolution is attempted:
the master adopts a pupil.

Before examining the legend of Sidi Ahmed, it should be pointed out
that the legend also attempts to resolve a contradiction between baraka
per se and baraka that is a symbol for mystical learning. The former
can be passed on only agnaticall)^ the latter can be pa^ed on to any
willing student, despite his origin.

The most striking difference between Sidi *Ali*s acquisition of baraka
and Sidi Ahmed's is that the former actively seeks it and the latter
passively receives it. The two methods of acquisition are minor op-
posites. Sidi 'Ali, the active seeker, must become a woman and pas-
sively receive it; once lie has received it, he becomes a man agnin. To
obtain baraka passively, Sidi Ahmed must be a man — ^this is symbolized
in the errands he runs for Sidi 'Ali, by the fact that his stomach does
not swell ^^ hen he drinks 'Abdelhaqq's buttermilk, and that he brings
back a female dmon from the Sudan; once he receives the baraka, he
becomes a woman. He slashes his head. Head-slashing, here, is the sym-
bolic equivalent of castration. That there has been a displacement from
penis to head is suggested by the fact that ras refers to the glans of the
penis as well as to the head.^® This equivalence — penis = head — ^is not
infrequently encountered in psychoanalysis, also (Freud 1941).

The episodes dealing with Sidi Ahmed are much less ambionous than
those concerned with Sidi 'Ali. (I exclude here the legends relating Sidi
Ahmed to the canonists of Fez and to Moulay Ismail, which were not

"•The failure of diis resolution is masked by certain hints at rebirth. Sidi *Ali
becomes pregnant with Sharqi's baraka and gives birth to himself as a saint who is
enable of passing on his baralca ro his children. This theme is not developed.

"This interpretation is supported by material collected by free association and
in Rorschach tests. These will be treated in the seauel to this work. I have no
evidence for an equivalence between blood from neid wounds and menstroal
blood, as Bettelheim (1955) might suggest

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THE HAMADSHA

part of the legendary cycle related by Muqaddim Tomjer but were
told to me by the docendants of Sidi Ahmed.) Sidi Ahmed— whether
the son of Sidi 'AH or a stranger—is treated like a servant or slave. This
is Indicative of the subordinate rektiooship of son to fadier which is
characteristic of Arab society. The errands Sidi Ahmed runs for his
master are tests of his manhood. He must overcome ^Abdeihaqq, the
son of Moulay Ismail, the beheader; then he must go to the Sudan to
fetch the bsL He brings back a female demon, a woman— only to team
of his master's death, according to the most frequently heard version
of the legend, and his legacy of baraka. The sequence to this point ap-
pears to mirror the maturation of the boy under the tutelage of the
father. Then there is an odd twist. Once having inherited his fathet^s
power, the son castrates himself, at least symbolically, despite the ad-
monitions of his companions.

**You are lucky to be alive/' they said. *Tou are lucky to have children.
The children will carry on your blood and your baraka. You must not be
angry or sad. You wUl always have children. They will alwaj^ replace
you."

At tlie moment when Sidi Ahmed's (and Sidi 'All's) presumed desire
to found a lineage carrying on his baraka has been fidfilled, he renders
himself a woman, and women cannot pass on baraka. A woman is, in a
sense, like a man with personal baraka; she cannot pass on her traits,
and he cannot pass on his baraka.'^

Psychologically, the tegend again appears to be concerned with mas-
culine identi^. The son has not followed in his father's footsteps. Al-
though he has obeyed his father's commands, including the preparation
of bath-water, which is usually a female task, he has remained a man.
There are no indications of a passive, homosexual attitude toward the
father; however, there are hints of his dependence upcm the father.
Each time Sidi Ahmed goes off on a mission, it is SicB ^AJi who sanres
him— whether from the hand of Moulay Ismail, after he has killed the
famed beheader*s son, or from the soldiers of the king of the Sudan,
after he has stolen the king*s instruments and his woman. At one level
of analysis, the head-slashing appears to symbolize the son^s inadequacy
— ^his lack of independence — once the father has been eliminated; he
rejects the masculine role, the role of head of a lineage possessed of

* The passage of baraka from Sidi *AIi to Sidi Ahmed is not as well developed
as that from Bu^bid Sharqi to Sidi ^Ali. The fact that Sidi Ahmed is not the son
of SMi 'AH is not played up.

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baraka. The "masculine protest" — to use Alfred Adlcr*s expression-
has been unsuccessful. He renders himself a woman — the sign of frailty,
weakness, and infeiioiity— and thereby incapable of passii^ on ba-
raka.22

From a sociological (and an ideological) point of view, the episode
appears again — but less clearly — ^to be an attempt to resolve the dilemma
of the saint who is possessed of personal but not institutionalized baraka
(and an attempt to resolve the conflict between the passage of baraka
per se and baraka as a symbol for mystical learning). Sidi Ahmed, who
is not the real son of Sidi *Ali, plays the role but must depend upon
his father. When his master dies and bequeaths him his baraka, he is
incapable of receiving it— he is after all not the son of Sidi *Ah — even
though he is capable of bearing children. He is compelled to make him-
self feminine — to castrate himself — in order to receive it. Then as a
woman he cannot pass it on. The dilemma remains unresolved. Once
again self-inflicted androgyny is not a satisfactory answer.

The legendary cycle appears to have two principal parts, each of
which attempts to resolve certain psychological, sociological, and ideo-
logical problems. Psychologically they are concerned with the problem
of male identity and, if Bettelheim is correct, even with the male envy
of the female. Specifically they treat of the son's relationship with the
father; they reflect alternative attitudes toward the father. The son
may either play the passive role, as Sidi 'Ali did, and receive his father's
power; or, as Sidi Ahmed did, he may withstand the temptation to
submit to the father and find himself inadequate to the power that is
eventually bequeatlied him. Having resisted submission, he has, never-
theless, become dependent. It is suggested that both the passive role and

"The e xt r eme moaming probably reflects as well the nnbiyalenoe that the

son felt for the father. As Freud (1963:106) notes: "The more ambivalent the
relation has been, the more likely is the grief for the father's loss to turn into

melancholia."

It is perhaps possible to argue diat Kdi Ahmed slashes himself becrase he leds
diaC binnginff back 'A'isha Qandisha is somehow responsible for Sidi ^AlVs deadi.
Sidi 'All did not ask him to bring back *Aisha; he asked him to bring back the
hal. 'Alsha may be seen as a potential wife or as a mother; she is sometimes
referred to as Sidi ^Ali's servant. This suggests to the psychoanalytically oriented
that Sidi Ahmed's rrip to rhe Sudan to fetch the hal involved intercourse with his
mother. The trance state may be symbolic of intercourse. This intercourse ma^
have been held responsible for his father's death. Head-slashing results-^ this
argument is pursued — from the guilt or remorse die son feeb for having cansed
his father's death by sleeping with his mother.

It may even be argued — and such an argument would help to explain the cura-
tive vanie of head-dashlns^-diat the matOadoa BWdhihw the Madfenit and
thereby renders the son (oe patient) pocent^ virile, a man (cf. Bettftlhrim 1955:
81-82).

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THE j^AMADSHA

the dependency-inadequacy role of the son are symbolized regardless
of their genesis in terms of woman. The female is stereotyped as frail,
weak, inadequate, untrustworthy, and inferior by Moroccan Arabs, and
as such she represents such self-feelings in the man. The thempeutic
process will inyolve, as we shall see, an attempt to xealize ttoe feel-
ings symibolicaUy. It is a period of organized regression in which the
individual symbolically plays out his female identity in order to become
a man once more.

Sociologically, the legend attempts to resolve the problem of acquir-
ing baiaka which is inheritable hem someone from whom one is not
d^cended. In broader terms, it is the problem inherent In the Arabs'
extreme agoaxic principles. The son can acquire only what the father
possesses; the mother can pass nothing on.^ Self-inflicted androgyny is
an attempted but, in the final analysis, unsatisfactory answer to the
dilemma. Ideologically, the legends attempt again, through the symbol
of androgyny, to resolve the conflict between institutionalized bataka,
which can only be passed on agnatically, and baraka as a symbol for
mystical learning, which can be conveyed to anyone who is willing to
receive it.

SSnce baraka is the curative substance par excellence, it has been
necessary to follow out these different levels of analysis in order to
come to some understanding of its logic. At the same time, it has given
us a means of considering how the problems of baraka transference are
reflections of possible underlying psychological conflicts. It is sug-
gested that such conflicts would be symbolized and worked through,
at least for the Qamadsha, In terms of the logic of baraka and the other
moti& in the legendary cycle.

The lack of a well-dcvclopcd mother figure in the legends is indicative of this.
As a symbol of weakness, a woman is not able to mediate, ideologically at least,
the son's relationship whfa the father. (Compare UmrStnaa* analysis (1954Sb) of
the Oedipal mjnh.)

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PART TWO

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The following four chapters deal with the social and economic organi-
zation of the Hamadsha in three settings: the villages of Beni Rachid
and Beni Ouarad, the madina of Meknes, and the shantytowns, espe-
cially Sidi Baba, of the same city. My discussioti in Chapter Three of
Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad is, strictly speaking, concerned less with
the ^amadsha as members of a religious brotherhood than with the
descendants of Sidi 'Ali and Sidi Ahmed, who may or may not be mem-
bers of a Hamadsha team but who are, by virtue of their birth, inti-
mately related to the yamadsha brotherhoods. In anthropological
terms, membership in the 'umlad siyyid is ascribed and in the Hamadsha
brotherhoods achieved. Only those aspects of the life and organization
of the wulad sayyid which have a bearing on the J^^amadsha complex
are covered.

Attention is then given to the relationship of the saints' descendants
both to the cult of their ancestors and to the brotherhoods. Examina-
tion of both of these relationships in the last chapter of this section, on
social organization, involves an analysis of the passage of baraka and the
passage of wealth, which complement and reinforce each other.

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The
Saints^

Villages

The tombs of Sidi 'Ali ben Hamdush and Sidi Ahmed Dghughi are
located, respectively, in the two neighboring villages of Beni Rachid
and Beni Ouarad, on the south face of the Jebel Zerhoun. The Zerhoun
itself is an irregular massif, covering an area of a little more than a
hundred square miles and extending from the plains of the Oucd
Sejra, on the south, which separate it from the plateau of Meknes,
to the Zaggota Pass and the Middle Scbou on the north; it lies west
of Fez. The massif rises dramatically, like a giant bulwark, out of the
rich Sais wheat and barley plains, to an altitude of 3,671 feet. Still
wooded with holm-oak on its crest, it contrasts sharply wMth the char-
acteristic plains and rolling hills of the area, which are often culti-
vated to their summits, and it is considered by both Moroccans and
Europeans as one of the most beautiful mountains in the country
(Boulanger 1966:232; ben Talha 1965:7; Herber 1923). The popula-
tion of the Zerhoun has settled on the periphery of the mountain,
and its wide crest has remained more or less uninhabited. Both the
people of the south slope, who are primarily Arabized Sanhaja, and
the people of the north slope, who tend to be of Rifian origin, live in
clay-block (or sometimes stone) houses which are covered with ter-
raced roofs of beaten earth.

The Zerhoun is said to produce the best olives in Morocco, and
the sides of the mountain, particularly on the richer, south side, are
covered with olive trees wherever there is sufficient soil for them to
take root. The cellars of the larger houses in many of the villages —
there are six principal villages on the south face alone — are equipped

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THE ^AMAOSHA

with oil presses resembling the presses found in the nearby Roman
ruins of Volubilis, locally called the Pharaoh's Palace. The trees may
be individually or collectively owned, worked by their owner or one
of his hired hands, or rented out by individual agreement or to the
best bidder in a village auction. Although occasional fig, carob, citrus,
and other fruit trees can be found in the vicinity of die villages, the
olive is the mountain's principal economic resource. (Prickly pears,
which grow in the drier, rodder gorges and guUies, are also sold.)
Many of the villagers, however, also own, or at least work, fields in
the plains; they store theur wheat and bariey in underground granaries.
There are also kitchen gardens, and many families have a few sheep,
or even a cow, grazed by a son, grandson, or hired hand. The villages
on the south face of the Zerhoun, like Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad,
are economically oriented to Meknes; those on the north face to
Moulay Idriss, and to a lesser extent Fez.

Although the Zerhoun, located as it is between the imperial cities
of Meknes and Fez, has long been part of the blad Umakhzan, or
region under central government control and taxation, it has tradi-
tionally been a refuge for victims of war and famine, such as the Rifian
Berbers who settled on the north face. The refugees were attracted to
the mountain not only because of its strong defensive position but
also because of its agricultural potential and its opportunities for work.
They were drawn, too, by its sanctity, for the Zerhoun, accommodat-
ing the tombs not only of Sidi *AIi and Sidi Ahmed but also of Moroc-
co's "national saint," Moulay Idriss, and many lesser saints of merely
local importance, is considered a sacred mountain, and its inhabitants
are famed for and proud of their piety These migrations to the
mountain have produced a heterogeneous population, both with
respect to the Zerhoun as a whole and within many of the villages
themselves. This is especially true of Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad.

In the years immediately preceding the arrival of the French in
Morocco in 1912, the Zerhoun was divided into two administrative
units, one for the north, centered in Moulay Idriss, and the other for
the south, centered in £1 Merhasiyne. Each district was headed by a

*Thcy are proud of the fact that there are no Jews or Christians on the Zerhoun
and that, despite the unusual number of pilgrimage centers, there are no prosti-
tates. Prostit u t e s have tended to gravitate to active pilgrimage centers like Moulay
ftshim and Sidi Rafyal near Marrakech, and the baois of Moulay Yacoub near
Fez and Sidi Sh'man Mula l-Kifan near Meknes. It is said that the authorities
will not touch them in the sacred area of the sanctuary. Ironically, the two baths
are visited by those suffering from venereal diseases.

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THE saints' villages

caid, or local administrator, who was responsible to the central gov-
ernment, and each village was headed by a muqaddim. The muqaddims
of Beoi Rachid and Ouarad were responsible to the caid of £1
Merhasi3me; they were members of the saintly families bat were not
the leaders (mhffufars) of these families. From what I have been able
to gather f^om the older peasants, the traditional Moroccan Arab
ootmdl of elders (jnu^) was of little importance in the two saintly
villages even in the pre-Protectorate days, and village life was dom-
inated, as it is today, by the leaders of die saints' children.

The French maintained this arrangement for some time after their
arrival, but they eventually simplified it by placing a single mnqaddim
at the head of not one but three villages. Significantly, die nmqaddim
charged with Beni Rachid, himself a resident of die village and a
descendant of Sidi 'Ali as well as brother-in-law to the caid of El
Merhasiyne^ was not charged with the administradon of Sidi Ahmed's
village of Beni Ouarad but with two other neighboring villages. This
administrative separadon probably resulted from the hostility and
compeddon which has eidsted between the two villages for many
years and which is, as we will see, dramadcally portrayed during the
annual pilgrimages to the saints' tombs.

Since Moroccan independence in 1956, a single caid has been re-
sponsible for the entire Zerhoun; his headquarters are in die town of
Moulay Idriss. Moulay Idiiss, however, falls under the separate charge
of a pasha rather than under the jurisdicdon of the Zerhoun caid.
Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad are under the more direct control of a
sheikh, subordinate to die caid, who lives in the village of Hamraoua.
(The former caid of £1 Merhasiyne lives in exile in France.) The
villages still have different muqaddims, but the mu<pddim of Beni
Rachid is no longer a resident of the vill^ or a descendant of its saint.

Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad

Both Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad, like the other vill^fes on the
south slope of the Zerhoun, are comparatively wealthy hy rural Mo-
roccan standards. Beni Rachid, which is much richer than Beni Ouarad,
is located about a mile farther down the £1 Merhasiyne-Moulay Idriss
road and is separated from Beni Ouarad by the hamlet of Qelaa,
where some of Sidi *Aii*s descendants live. A narrow, winding path,
fi^quented hy pilgrims to the saints, joins the three villages. The houses
of Beni Rachid are clustered on top of a rocky mamelon and are often

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supported by the waUs of an old kasha (fortress), now in ruins, which
is said to have belonged to one of Moulay Ismail's qaids, or pashas,
called bel Shaqur. The villagers maintain that bel Shaqur, like his sultan,
was notorious for his extreme cruelty and was finally flogged to death
by the peasants of the nearby village of Beni Jennad after demanding
the right of the first night from their virgins.^ His kasba, they insist,
was at least twenty kilometers in circumference; and although this is
an obvious exaggeration, the kasba must have been an impressively
large structure, since many of the houses of Beni Rachid lie within its
confines. This gives the village a very tight, concentric look which
contrasts with the narrow, elongated appearance of Beni Ouarad.

Sidi *Ali's mausoleum, just above the basin and baths of the *Ayn
Kabir, runs lengthwise on a sort of land bridge that joins the mamelon
of the village on the west with the Qelaa ridge on the east. It is one of
the largest mausoleums in the country, measuring some 150 feet in
length. The tomb, which forms an almost perfect square about 45 feet
on each side, is located at riie western end of the mausoleum complex
and is covered by a hexagonal roof of glazed green tile. (Most of the
qubbas in which Moroccan saints are buried are square with domed
roofs.) An open rectangular court, about 110 feet by 45 feet, extends
eastward from the tomb. One enters the court from the south and the
tomb from the courtyard. Along the interior walls of the court there
are little cubicles built by Sidi 'Ali's children for pilgrims who wish to
spend the night, but these cubicles are not very popular. They are
infested with fleas, ticks, and lice, and the pilgrims prefer to battle the
insects in the sanctity of the tomb itself, where they can garner more
of the saint's baraka. Sidi *Ali lies parallel to the western wall of the
mausoleum. His face is turned toward Mecca, and he is covered with
a catafalque {darbuz) which consists of a simple wooden frame, cov-
ered with several layers of red, yellow, and white doth (ghata; kaswa;
or, if made only of cotton, tzar). An alms box stands next to riie door
of the tomb room. At the southeastern comer of the complex is a yel-
low and white minaret, next to a more traditional qubba in which Sidi
"All's disciple— some say his son and others his brother from whom
the children of the saint are, in fact, descended — Sidi 1-Qafyan, the
barefoot saint, is buried. The entire complex, which is usually referred
to as the siyyid, has been under restoration for the past few years.
The courtyard has been added, and the buildings have been plastered
and whitewashed. The mizwar, who is responsible for the building,

'There are no I^nds lehting bel Shaqur to etdier Qamadsha saint

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THE SAINTS* VILLAGES

plans to tile the court, put a fountain in the middle, and illuminate the
whole complex when electricity finally comes to Beni Rachid.

Although there are several other saints buried in Beni Rachid — the
most notable is Sidi Musa, from whom many of the villagers claim de-
scent — thev do not play a significant role in the cult to Sidi *Ali.' The
*Ayn Kabir and a grotto to *Aisha Qandisha are, however, important
pilgrim stops. The waters of the *Avn Kabir flow from the rocky wall
of the land bridge on which Sidi AU's tomb is located. They are con-
sidered to contain much barnkn, nnd are valued for their therapeutic
effects. A few years ago the descendants of Sidi 'All attempted to build
a basb for the water but, as the basin cracked open every time they
completed it, they decided that Sidi 'Ali did not wish to have Us
sacred waters confined, and they abandoned the project. The water
now drips down a stairway to the three-roomed, clay-block bathhouse
which the saint's descendants built at the same time they tried to build
the basin. They charge pilgrims an admission of 50 francs (or 100
francs during the musem) a bath,*

The grotto {1?ufra) to 'Aisha Qandisha lies a few hundred yards
east of the village proper. It is banked on one side by the root system
of an enormous fig tree, which towers over it and is considered ex-
tremely powerful by local peasants who graft its branches onto their
own young trees to make them fruitful. The grotto itself consists of
two small hollows. In the larger outer hollow, the roots of the fig tree
are tied with rags and ribbons and other bits of doth which have been
left by pilgrim women as a sign of a vow ('jr) to sacrifice something,
usually a black chicken, to 'Aisha Qandisha if she giants them their
wishes. The inner cavity, where an underground stream trickles to the
surface, is dark and muddy. It is here that 'Ai'sha is said to reside.^

The mausoleum of Sidi Ahmed, which is located at the end of the
main road that separates the larger houses of the wealthy villagers on
the south from the smaller houses of the poor on the north, is much
smaller than Sidi *Ali's tomb and, unlike it, is structurally integrated

with the houses of Beni Ouaiad. Not only does the house of the
former mizwar actually share a wall with the mausoleum, but the
square in front of the tomb is the scene of most village activity. Al-
though Sidi Ahmed's descendants claim that their ancestor's tomb is

'There are no legends relating them to eidier Sidi 'All or Sdi Ahmed.

* There are 100 francs to the mrhun. A dirham was worth 20 American cents at
the time of my investigation.

'I have heard *Aisha's grotto called the fish spring {l-'ayn l-}?ut) by women.
It should be noted that *ayn taay mean both a 4>nng ^ ^< F>di are asso-
ciated widi other sanctuaiies in Morocco.

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THE 9AMADSHA

also undergoing renovation, there are no signs of work, with the pos-
sible exception of a few dabs of whitewash around the "keyhole arch"
door. The tomb itself, which can only be reached through the court-
yard, is located to the northwest of the courtyard and is oriented
from northeast to southwest. In the comer of the courtyard is a small
hole, filled with muddy earth, which is called 'Ai'sha's pit (httfra)
because *Aisha Qandisha is said to appear there from time to time,
especially when ecstatic dances are performed in front of the tomb.
Sidi Ahmed's descendants are very sensitive about this pit, because it
does not compare eitlier in size or lucrativeness to *A'isha*s grotto at
Beni Rachid. They believe that since their ancestor brought *Aisha to
the Zerhoun, they should obtain a share of the profits from the grotto,
but the descendants of Sidi *Ali have never agreed with them.

Population and Social Organization

The two villages of Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad are about the same
aze. Beni Rachid, according to the census of 1960, has a population of
500 (89 households), of whom about 300 claim descent from Sidi 'AIL
Beni Ouarad, according to the same census, has 604 inhabitants (140
households), 200 said to be the children of Sidi Ahmed. Although the
saints' descendants account for only 60% of the population of Beni
Rachid and 30% of Beni Ouarad, they dominate village life both eco-
nomically and politically and are treated with a mixture of respect
and resentment by the other villagers. There are almost no marriages
between the descendants of the two saints. Of 146 marriages recorded
for the children of Sidi Ahmed, only two took place with inhabitants
of Beni Rachid, and only one of these with a descendant of Sidi *A1L
Although over 50% of the marriages recorded were with spouses hom
outside the village, and about 23% with inhabitants of other villages on
the Zerhoun,* it appears that there is a great reluctance to form unions
not only with the descendants of Sidi 'Ali but with any inhabitants of
Beni B^chid. Despite the traditional Arab preference for parallel-
cousin marriage, only two paraUel-cousin marriages were recorded
for Sidi Ahmed's children. And in spite of the obvious economic ad-
vantages of marrying a descendant of the saint— the saint's children
receive a share of the proceeds from the saint's tomb and of the gifts
of the brotherhood — only 20% of the marriages in the last four genera-

* It should be noted that no marriages with inhabiranrs of Qelaa and Beni Jennad,
the next closest villages, were recoroed. Qelaa is dominated by the descendants of
Sidi'AU.

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dons were endogamousJ Although my figures are not complete for
Sidi 'Ali's children, who were quite resistant as informants, a similar
pattern is discernible in even my fragmentary data. There are consider-
able differences in wealth and political influence among the descend-
ants of each saint, but the children of Sidi *Ali appear, on the whole, to
be wealthier than those of Sidi Ahmed.

The descendants of Sidi 'All and Sidi Ahmed follow, at least ideally,
the traditional model of segmentary sode^ characteiistic of the Arab
Bedouin (Peters I960; Evans-Pritchard 1949:29-61), and they are di-
vided into agnatic lineages whose members orient themselves to a
significant ancestor and refer to themselves as the children (wtdad)
of that ancestor. The particular ancestor chosen depends on the par-
ticular segment of the group the speaker wishes to call on and on
what is demanded by the particular circumstances at hand. Since
the descendants of both saints live, and have lived for hundreds of
years, under central government authority, the corporate strength of
the descent groups has been greatly — ^but not completely — reduced
to the field of domestic relations (cf. Fortes 1953). The division of
proceeds from the saints' tombs (futuhat)^ the religious brotherhoods,
and the saints* properties (habtis), as well as the administrative func-
tion of the mizwars as the heads of each of these saintly lineages and
the brotherhoods, has preserved the corporate structure of the groups
to an extent which is not apparent among the other inhabitants of
the Zerhoun.'

The most distant ancestor, encompassing the largest descent group
capable of joint action, to which the descoidants of either saint make
reference is either Sidi 'Ali or Sidi Ahmed. (Both descent groups
appear to have no affiliation with any larger dan or tribal groups.)

''It is theoretically possible to argue that the high frequency of exogamous
marriages resulted from the saintly children's desire to increase their political
support. Given the complexities of political power within the saindy lineages and
within the village itself, this seems unlikely. A better argument is niat nonsdiitty
familicf; are willing to accept smaller bride^piiccs and give laiger OHMS for mt
prestige of marrying into a saintly family.

***A group may be spoken of as 'corporate* when it possesses any one of a
certain number of characters: if its member^ or its adult male memben^ or a
considerable proportion of them, come together occasionally to carry out some
collective acdon— for example, the performance of rites; if it nas a chief or council
who ave v^jarded as acting as the representative of the group as a wliole; if it
possesses or controls property which is collective, as when a clan or Unease is a
land-owning group" (Radcliffe-Brown 1962:41). The descendants of the Hamad-
sha saints score on each count: they come together during the annual pilgrimage
and tor the division of proceeds; they have a chief, the mizwar; and ihejr hold
l^abns hnds in conunon*

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THE HAMADSHA

Generally, they refer to themselves and are referred to as umlad
siyyidy the children of the saint, when they wish to distinguish them-
selves from, say, the other villagers, or nuukd Sidi ^AU or vmlad Sidi
Ahmed when they wish to distinguish themselves from the descendants
of another saint. Since every member of the wulad siyyid is ftt least
theoretically capable of tracing his genealogical connection with every
other member of the group from a known ancestor, the wulad sayyid
is then, in anthropological terms, a maximal lineage (cf. RadcMe-
Brown 1962:39). The mizwar is the leader of the wulad siyyid, as
well as of smaller lineage segments within it; and the permanence of
his position, which is chartered by the "extra-familial hand** of the
King as representative of the central government and the Moroccan
nation, tends to give the group a more stable character than is usually
found in "pure** segmentary systems. Even among the smaller seg>
ments of the wulad siyyid, there is a similar tendency toward per-
manency. The pardcuiar segments which play a decisive role in the
lives of the saint's descendants are those concerned with the division
of proceeds from the saint and the brotherhood. It is these that have
more or less congealed.

All men, women, and children who are agnatically descended from
either Sidi 'Ali or Sidi Ahmed are eligible for an equal share in the
proceeds from the saint*s complex and the associated brotherhood.
The proceeds from the former include the alms, candles, sacrificial
animals, and other gifts left by pilgrims at the saint*s tomb or for
'Aisha Qandisha, as well as the fees from the baths in the case of Sidi
*Ali's descendants. Profits from the babus lands — lands donated to the
saint by pious Muslims who are anxious to obtain by their good deeds
much baraka and, thereby, easy entrance to heaven— are also divided.
The teams associated with each saint are required to bring large gifts —
theoretically all that they have received in the form of gifts and fees
throughout the year — to their mizwar at the time of the musem.
These, too, are traditionally divided among the saint's descendants.*

•A distinction is usually made between alms (futuhat) left by pilgrims and the
revenues of the sanctuary's ^abus properties. The former are most often divided
•moag the stumps descendants; their manner of discribatioa lies ultimately in the
hands of the King. Revenue from the habus properties is supervised by an official
overseer (nadir). Conflicts concerning the distribution of alms were to be decided
in the last instance by a decree from the King; those concerning Ixabxis revenues
by the zeHgioos courts (Anon3mMn]s 1927?). Sudi legal niceties were not generally
recognized by the wulad sayyid at eidier Beni Rachid or Beni OuarM. They
claimed that not onlv alms but habus revenues and revenues from the zawiyas
and teams w ere traditionally evenly divided among them, and ought still to be so
dhrided.

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THE SAINTS* VILLAGES

Among the descendants of Sidi 'All, there are four major lineages,
each claiming descent from one of Sidi *Ali's four supposed sons,
which have tradidonaiiy played a role in this division. A single respected
elder from each was always present at the division, which took place
in the confines (horm) of the saint's tomb. He received the shares
set aside for his Hneage and distributed them. Although the presence
of the ciders in the sanctuary assured each lineage of its proper share
— barring of course collusion, which was unlikely in the sacred pre-
cincts (^form) of the mausoleum — there was no institutionalized safe-
guard against cheating individuals, or individual family heads, within
each lineage, and this gave rise to a great deal more suspicion and
mistrust among the saint's descendants than probably occurred in
most Moroccan Arab villages.*^

To what extent this is a realistic portrayal of the division at Beni
Rachid is impossible to determine, for the system has not been opera-
tive for sev^ years. Judging from the complexities of the Uneage
structure among the descendants of Sidi x\hmed, about which my data
are much more complete, it seems unlikely that the lineage structure
was this simple or that it accounted, as I have been told again and
again, for all of the children of Sidi 'Ali. The mizwar, assured of his
position both by his wealth and by outside (government) authority,
has not divided the proceeds from the saint's tomb in several years,
but has claimed to have used them for the restoration of the mauso-
leum. This has given rise to even more suspicion and resentment
among Sidi *Ali's children, who do not feel that they were properly
consulted and do not believe that the progress of restoration is in any
way commensurate with the expenses clahned. Rumor has it that the
mizwar pockets most of the proceeds and pays out die rest to the
more influential of his relatives. Thus the major lineages, which had
traditionally played an important role in the division, have lost their
principal function. Still, when asked, the villagers assured me that the
division took place in the prescribed way until very recently and

that it will again take place as soon as the renovation Ss completed (or
there is a change of mizwar).

The lineage organization of the descendants of Sidi Ahmed, which
is diagrammed in Figure 1, is more complex. The lineages do not
play as decisive a role in the division of proceeds as is alleged for
the major lineages of the wulad Sidi 'Ali. Division is organized here

^"Such suspicion and mistrust is probably characteristic of the descendants of
odier saints as \pell. It was, for example, vezy nodoeabk tmoog die "duUien** d
Mouhy Brahim.

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THE HAMADSHA

WULAO*
MKHARIT

WULAO
MUHAMMAO

sen omss

WULAO
S^MMARIYVA

WULAO
KHAI
MUHAMMAO

WULAO

BEN
OMAR

^ 91 D1 AHMED DGHUGHI

TOUNOER or LINCAGC

^ LINfEAGE TRACED FROM WIFE
«■ RECEIVES NO PROCCEOS TROM SAINT

Figure 1. The lineages of the wulad Sidi Ahmed Dghughi

quite differently, and operates on chance. Each of the agnatic descend-
ants of Sidi Ahmed — ^man, woman, and child — ^who qualifies for a
share is in charge of the sanctuary for a day and receives all of the
proceeds of the day with the exception of a bull, which is divided
equally among the saint's descendants.^^ Rotation stops for the very
flcdve month preceding and including the musem; all of the proceeds
for this month go to the mizwar, who uses them for preparing for and
entertaining at the pilgrimage. The role of the lineages is limited then
to the division of ^fts from the brotherhoods (and whatever remains
from the month of the museum). This division takes place not in the
mausoleum but in the mizwar's house.

Among the ten lineages we find that three do not receive a share
because they are said not to be '*true'* children of Sidi Ahmed. The
members of two of these are no longer residents at Beni Ouarad. Of
the remaining seven lineages, one is virtually defunct, having one last
member, an old woman, who receives her share but does not partici-
pate in the division. Elders from only four of the other six lineages

There are no special rules for butchering. The meat is distributed without
reference to cut.

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THE saints' villages

have supervised the sharing: \vu!ad Ilajj Qasim, wulad 'Ammariyya,
wiilad Fasivya (of whom the present niizwar is a member), and wulad
khai Driss (who may have represented wulad khai Aluhammud as
well). The wulad Muhammud ben Driss, one of the largest, has not
been represented recently but has received a share. It is from this
lineage that the mizwars came before the position was preempted for
his son by the father of the present mizwar, who was the wealthiest,
most influential man in the village.

It must be emphasized that representation does not follow a hard
and fast rule but depends more on local politics. The wealthiest and
most influential elders, regardless of lineage affiliation, are chosen.
There is a tendency for these elders to represent different hneages —
which may be structurally justified bv the fact that the largest possible
number of descendants are, thereby, represented and appeased — but this
is not always the case. The division the year before I made this study
was supervised by two elders from the wulad Fasiyya and by repre-
sentatives of the wulad Ilajj Qasim and the wulad 'Ammariyya. It
appears that among the descendants of Sidi Ahmed, the lineage struc-
ture does not operate in terms of balancing opposing groups of equal
size and status, as such segmentary systems are said classically to
operate, but in terms of local political considerations. This probably
results from the fact that the authority of the mizwar rests on his
wealth and his influence w ith the outside world, and it has tended to
render the structural balance of power ineffective, if indeed it ever
was effective in a world as open to outside influence as that of Beni
Ouarad.

The Mizwar

The mizwar of each of the saint's families is in complete control of
the affairs of the saint's complex and is considered to have a greater
endowment of baraka than the other of the saint's descendants, al-
though the descendants themselves and the most pious of the fol-
lowers do not make this assertion straightforwardly. Not only is the
mizwar charged with the care and maintenance of the saint's tomb
and associated cults, but he is the leader of all of the teams that claim
to be followers of his ancestor. He also administers all habus lands.
Although his powers are oflicially limited to his descent group, where
he serves as an arbiter in the case of disputes, he is in fact in control
of the village because of his position as mizwar, his wealth, and his
influence with the government.

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THE ^AMADSHA

The mizwar's political powers outside his maximal lineage and the
village are restricted. Although he is charged with die administration
of a network of lodges found in all of die principal cities of northern
Morocco and in many rural areas as well, he does not have under his
control a politically significant organization from either a formal (in-
stitutionalized) or informal point of view. The adepts were, and still
are, without political influence. Moreover, the saintly families, un-
like those of other similar complexes like the Ihansalen of the central
High Atlas (Gellner 1963), have played almost no institutionalized
political role in the surrounding tribal and village groups. This may
be accounted for on two grounds. First, the descendants of Sidi *Ali
and Sidi Ahmed have lived in the center of the blad 1-makhzan and
have been subjected to the central authority of the sultanate from the
time of the death of their saintly ancestors. Second, the tombs of Sidi
^Ali and Sidi Ahmed are located within the sphere of influence of
the greater saint, Moulay Idiiss. Thus, even asylum in the sacred con-
fines of the mausoleum — asylum could be sought, as in the Christian
churches of Europe, in many of the saints* tombs of Morocco
(LeTourneau 1949:600) — was seldom preferred to that of Moulay
Idriss, whose descendants had much more influence with the central
government than those of either Sidi *Ali or Sidi Ahmed.

There are no explicit roles for successioa to the ''mizwarship.*' All
that is required is a testimonial letter signed by twelve of the saint's
descendants, which is then presented to the government for ultimate
approval by the King. Among the descendants of Sidi ^Ali, three elders
from eadi of the four major Imeages were said to have approved the
choice of mizwar; among the descendants of Sidi Ahmed, the situa-
tion was more complicated. The mizwarship has tended to pass from
father to son in bodi groups, however, and any break in tlds pattern
is considered by both the saint's descendants and followers and by
other villagers as a break with tradition (qaida) which will incur the
saint's disapproval When Taik, the former mizwar of Sidi "Ali, died,
for example, he left a son and several grandsons. All of them were
eligible for the mizwarship theoretically, bnt the present mizwar,
Tdk's younger brother, who was wealthier than Taik and had more
influence with the government than his brother's sons and grandsons,
obtained the position for himself by paying oS twelve elders to witness
his appointment. He was able then to obtain — at a price, it is usually
dahned-a letter of charter from the King which insured his appoint-
ment. The fact that despite three marriages he had only a single son
who was bom before he became mizwar was taken by the villagers

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THE SAINTS* VILLAGES

as a sure sign of Sidi 'All's disapproval, and it was not until he "ar-
ranged matters" by marrying his son to Taik's granddaughter that
Sidi 'Ali's "approval" was gained. The mizwar then married still an-
other woman and had six children by her.

The Endowment of Baraka

All of the men, women, and children who are descended through
the male line from either Sidi 'Ali or Sidi Ahmed are endowed from
birth with their ancestor's baraka. It is necessary once again to dis-
tinguish between the two different endowments of baraka: institu-
tionalized and personal baraka. The former results from the status of
the individual, and the latter from his personal merit. As agnatic
descendants of a saint, all of the children of the saint are institutionally
endowed with baraka, without regard to their personal merit. It is
asserted, however, that as descen^ints they must necessarily be en-
dowed with the qualities that are said to be in keeping with the pos-
session of baraka. This baraka can never be lost. The second ty^t of
baraka, the personally achieved, depends not upon an individual's
heritage but upon his character, his piety and spirituality, his moral
fiber and his therapeutic gifts— in short, upon that "vividness" of
which Geertz writes.

Although all of the agnatic descendants of the saints are possessed
of baraka — their institutional endowment— some are considered to
have more baraka than others. This greater endowment mav also be
institutionalized, as in the case of the mizwar, or achieved, as in the
case of certain elders who by virtue of their personal qualities are
said to have a lot of baraka. (Old people are generally said to have
baraka.) The latter, since the\' are approachable, are often sought
after by pilgrims for cures. The mizwars themselves usually keep a
certain distance from the run of-rlic-mill pilgrims, in keeping with
their highly esteemed position. This distance not only safeguards their
authority, but it also preserves their institutionalized endowment of
baraka from any dilution by their lack of personal baraka.

Endowed from birth with their ancestor's baraka, the descendants
of the saint have no need for any special ceremonies by which their
endowment is made manifest or confirmed. Their attitude toward
their ancestor is not qualitatively different from that of other Moroc-
cans to the saint, except insofar as they regard him as an economic
boon. They follow all of the religious practices of the average Moroc-
can of the Zerhoun (cf. ben Talha 1965), but invite the local team to

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THE 9AMADSHA

perform at their name-day celebrations, circumcisions, and other life-
crias ceremonies more often than do the other inhabitants of the
massif. They recite communal prayers in the mausoleum on the night
of the twenty-seventh of Ramadan (Lilat Uqadar), They follow essen-
tially the same procedures as other pilgrims when they visit their an-
cestor's tomb, but they do not give any alms.

Some of the saint's descendants belong to the local (^hmadsha team,
whose members are recruited primarily from the other viUageis.
Others, like the mizwais and the wealthier descendants, never par-
ticulate in any of the team's dances and treat their activities with a
mixture of scorn and respect The teams of both villages, which are
very loosely organized and poorly led, are rife with jealousy and fac-
tionalism. Members who are descended from the saint bdieve they
should receive all of the proceeds; the other members believe that the
proceeds should be shared equally; and the saint's descendants who
are not team members think that all of the proceeds should be placed
in the ahns box and shared equally among them. Although some of the
children of die sainc do M into tnnce and slash their heads, they
categorically deny— and so do theur pious followers— that this has
ever occurred. They dte a proverb which may be roughly translated:
'If a child of the saint falls into ecsca^, the followers of the saint wiU
fall out of ecstasy." This proverb not only emphasizes the social dif-
ferentiation between the children of the saint and the followers, but
it also suggests that there may in fact be a qualitative difference be-
tween the children's endoMmient of baraka, which does not enable
them to trance and slash, and the followers' endowment, which is the
enabling factor.

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The
Lodges of
Meknes

Within the city of Meknes tlie Hamadsha fall into two principal
categories: those who are associated with one of the two lodges of
the old town, or madinay and those who are affiliated with teams that
have no special meeting place. Although the majority of teams are
found in the bidonvilles that surround the city, there are a number
of madina inhabitants, usually recent immigrants to the city like their
confreres in the shanty towns, who are affihated with them. This chap-
ter deals with the Hamadsha who are associated with the two lodges,
or zaiijiyas, of Meknes. They may be divided into the adepts (foqra)^
who are members of the lodges; the devotees (muhibbin); and the
ghiyyata, or oboe players. The members of one of these zawiyas are
followers of Sidi 'Ali and arc called '^Allaliyyin; the members of the
other are followers of Sidi Ahmed and are called Dghughiyyin.^

The Cmr of Meknes

The city of Meknes is set between the Zerhoun massif on the north
and plateaus on the south which extend down to the Middle Atlas and
are populated primarily bv Berbers. It lies on the great caravan route,
the tariq s-sultan, that joined Algeria and other Islamic lands to the

* The distinction between the zawiyas whose members follow one or the other
saint does not exist in all Moroccan cities. In some cities there is only one zawiya,
and followeis of bodi saints attend it; in other cities, like Marrakech, membexsnip
in the two zawiyas is mixed. The two lodges there are linked to rival quartets
rather than to any one saint. £ven ia Mekoes, many of the adqics of one lodge
have transferred to the othei;

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THE I^AMADSHA

east with the rich Atlantic plains of northern Morocco. These plains
had been settled by Hilalian Arabs in the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies, and Meknes may be considered a sort of border town between
Arab and Berber worlds. It is located about 35 miles from the imperial
city of Fez, and with the exception of the long reign of Moulay Ismail
(1672-1727), when the city was in its prime, it has been overshadowed
both intellectually and politically by the great university city.

Originally a series of small villages, Meknes was first consolidated
by the Almoravid sultan Yussef ben Tashfin in the second half of the
eleventh century; but it was not until Moulay Ismail transferred his
capital to Meknes in the seventeenth century that the city became
internationally famous. Moulay Ismail, builder with grandiose aspira-
tions, was determined to have his city outshine the cities of Fez and
Marrakech, both of which he despised because of their resistance to
his power. He personally supervised the work of about 2,000 Chrisdan
captives, 30,000 common criminals, and coimtless black African slaves
who built his palaces, gardens, military quarters, and kasbas, and the
more than fifteen miles of walls which surrounded the city (Julien
1966(11): 237). The eighteenth-century English traveler John Windus
(1725:115-116) has written:

The Emperor is wonderfully addicted to Building; yet it is a question
whether he is more addicted to that, or pulling down, for di^ say if all his
Buildings were now standi!^, by a moderate computation, Aey would

reach to Fez, twelve Leagues off; And those who have been near him since
the beginning of his Reign, have observed him eternally building and pull-
ing down, shutting up Doors and breaking out new ones in the Walls. But
he tells them this is done to occupy his People; for says he, if I have a Bag
full of Ratts, unless I keep that Bag stirring they will eat their way through;
but he does not design to give them time.

It must be remembered that it was durii^ the reign of Moulay Ismail
that Sidi *Ali lived and the Hamadsha first appeared. After the Sultan's
death, Meknes declined rapidly; but it did retain its general plan until
the French arrival in the beginning of this century.

The French made Meknes their princqMd militar^^ garrison, and the
city soon developed into an agrioiltural center. The appearance of
garages, retailers in trucks and farming equipment, canning and bot-
tling factories, transportation and trucking services, pharmacies and
moving picture theaters, had, however, only a gradiral influence on
the madina. Certainly the greater demand for madina products, both
by Europeans and Moroccans, had its e£Fect; but the tanners and cop-

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THE LODGES OF MEKNE8

persmiths, the enamclcrs specializing in the grey-black Meknes enamel-
ware, the tile- and brick-makers, and the other artisans, continued their
age-old manufacturing practices and went about their business as they
always had. Although the French changed the bureaucratic structure
of the city, this too had but Httle effect upon the average madina Arab,
who retained his traditional disHke of dealings with the government.
Even today, more than fifty yeais since the French first arrived in
Morocco, madina life in Mdmes is much as it was in pre-Protectorate
days.

The contrast between these two economics and two life styles is
illustrated by the contrast between the madina on the northern ridge
of the Bouflcrane and the new quarter, built by the French on the
site of Moulay Ismail's olive groves on the southern ridge. The Ham-
riya, as the new quarter came to be known, followed the plan of the
traditional French dxy^ with broad, tree-lined avenues, carrefours, and
modem, windowed houses and apartments. The madina followed the
plan of the Muslim city, with its narrow, winding streets and twisted
alleys, its specialized markets, and its ethnically-oriented residential
quarters with windowless houses, all radiating out from the Friday
mosque and central market (von Grunebaum 1955:154 ct seq.). In
the case of Meknes, the streets have been laid out according to the
qibla, the orientation toward Mecca, or to its perpendicular (Planhol
1959:17). Moulay Ismail's enormous palace, now half in ruins, dom-
inates much of the city.

The French changed the character of Meknes not only by the addi-
tion of the new quarter and their various militar\^ installations but also
by attracting a huge rural population. In 1936 the population of
Meknes was about 62,000 — about 50,000 Muslims and the rest Euro-
pean and Moroccan Jews. By 1960 there were nearly 161,000 in-
habitants, 150,000 of whom were Muslims. Thus the average annual
growth rate for the Muslim population of the city from 1936 to 1960
wn<; 4.35%, which contrasts with the Moroccan national average of
2.5%. This difference is readily accounted for by rural immigration to
the city (Service d'Urbanisme n,d.).

Although the heterogeneous character of the population of Meknes
may be attributed to this influx of rural peasants from both the
Atlantic plains and the Berber plateaus and mountains, it should be
remembered that the population had always been mixed. Not only
was die dty a sort of border town between the Arab and Berber
worids as well as a stop on the east-west caravan route; it was also a
created dty, to use the expression of the French urbanists, whose

oopyiiyhica maieiial

THE ]H[AMADSHA

inhabitants were attracted to it or brought in by force from many
ports of Morocco. It was not Moolay Ismail alone who was responable
for this; later rulers on occasion brought in whole tribes, or tribal
segments, to protect the city from outside threat or from internal dis-
order. These groups settled in separate quarters of the dty with which
they are still identified, although over die years inhabitants have mar-
ried out of thdr group and moved to other quarters.

Like other major cities of Morocco, Mdmes is stereotyped by both
Moroccans and Europeans. The Moroccans consider it to be one of
thdr most beautiful dties, endowed not only with a temperate dimate,
dear air, and adequate rainfall, but with work opportunities both
within the dty and in die nearby rural areas. Prices are said to be
lower there than in some of the other Moroccan dties. Meknes is not
recognized for its piety as is Marrakech, for its leammg as is Fez, for
its "big business" and corruption as is Tangier, or for its international
flavor as is Casablanca. It is considered, instead, to be the most "Moroc-
can" of the major cities.

To the European, particularly the French, the beauty of the dty
was taken more in stride, and it was recognized as a provincial farming
center and military base which had excellent economic possibilities and
was, despite its provinciality, not an undesirable dty in which to setde.
This picture, however, was gready tarnished by the so-called Mne-
ments which followed Independence. Then the inhabitants of Meknes
rose up and rioted, and they stormed some of the European homes and
factories and killed a few of the Europeans. These events, which seem
to have been unique to Meknes, caused panic among many of the
Europeans who left the dty. Meknes, in fact, has had a rather violent
history, from the time of Moulay Ismail to the present day. (It was
the scene of one of the few violent inddents in Morocco during the
SK-day Arab-Israeli war in June of 1967.) In part, this '*tone of vio-
lence" can be attributed both to the continued presence of military
installations in the dty— Meknes was always and still is an "army
town" — and to the dty*s unusually heterogeneous population, which
was subject to internecine conflict as well as to straightforward envy
of the wealthier Jews and Europeans.

More than any other Moroccan dty, Meknes is known for its popu-
lar brotherhoock, especially for the internationally famous %awiyya,
who follow Meknes* patron saint Sidi M'hamed-boi Isa and who have
lodges all the way across North Africa to Mecca. The ^wa are
known for their trances, in which they attack anything that is
black or anybody wearing black and, like die worshipers of Dionysius,

THE LODGES OF MEKNES

tear apart (the Bacchic, sparagmos) and eat raw (the Bacchic omo-
phagia) their sacrificial victims (Jeanmaire 1951:259 ct seq.; Dodds
1966:270-282). Although the 'Isawiyya were the largest and best-
known popular order in Mekncs, many of the other Moroccan orders
were and still are represented in the city. Not only are the Isawa and
Hamadsha still active, but the Jilala, the Miliana, the Tuhama, the
Gnawa, and even the Heddawa continue to meet there. Among the
"higher orders," the Tijaniyya and the Darqawiyya are still well rep-
resented. None of these orders arc as active as they were before the
arrival of the French. Some of them, like the Miliana, have lodges in
the madina which are now closed; the zawiyas of others, includi^ the
^amadsha, are moribund.

The Hamadsha Zawiyas

The two Hamadsha zawiyas arc located a few hundred yards apart
in one of the poorest sections of Meknes, not too far from the smiths'
quaner. There are a number of butcher shops in the area, as well as
shops where one can buy second-hand clothes, cord and rope, musical
instruments, and odd bits of junk, or have an old jallaba mended or
shoes repaired. It is not a specialized quarter, and the everyday needs
of most of the local residents can be met within a radius of a few
hundred yards. It is in easy walking distance of a little food market
near Sidi ben ^sa's mausoleum before which the I^amadsha of the
shantytowns often perform on Fridays, along with adepts from other
popular orders.

Both zawiyas consist of enclosed courtyards in which grave plots
have been sold to wealthy Arabs anxious to facilitate their entr}'' into
heaven by partaking of some of the baraka inherent in the place. This
practice is not restricted to the Hamadsha. One finds graves not only
in many of the lodges of the city, but also in the countryside in the
vidnity of a saint's tomb. Usually the founding saint is reported to
have spent some time at the site of the zawiya or one of his descendants
is said to be buried there.* 1 he latter is true of the Hamadsha zawiyas
of Meknes. At about the turn of the century, both orders were able to
obtain their lodges bv promising the revenues from the sale of grave
plots to their previous owners. Until then they performed in the open
or in private houses, much as tlic shantytown teams do today. Mem-
bers of the J^jamadsha brotherhoods themselves are usually too poor

'Cf*I^.25 etseq.

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THE 9AMADSHA

to buy the expensive plots, and only one or two of them are buried
there. The *Allaliyyin*s zawiya is slightly larger than the Dghu-
ghiyyin's, and has a room as well as covered porticos on two sides of
the courtyard. The Dghughiyyin have only a portico on one side of
their lodge. Both have fig trees in the center of the court which are
dedicated to ^Ai'sha Qandisha. As to the fig tree at Beni Rachid, bits
of cloth have been tied to these trees as signs of various promises to
the she-demon, most often a promise (*ar) to sacrifice a chicken to
^Aisha if a child is bom. Many of the lodge members claim to have
seen 'Aisha in front of the trees.

The organization of both lodges is much simpler than that of many
of the other Moroccan brotherhoods. The Hamadsha zawiyas come
under the direct charge of their particular mizwar, who not only re-
ceives the money they collect for supposed distribution among the
saints' children but acts as an arbiter in cases of disputes among the
lodge members or between the lodges of his brotherhood. He approves
the choice of a local leader, a muqaddim, who is selected by the adepts
themselves, and provides the muqaddim with both a letter of authority
and a flag. In the case of the 'Allaliyyin, the mizwar also gives the
muqaddim a handwritten copy of the hizb (sacred writings) allegedly
composed by al-Siadhili* Tlie miswars of botlt orders exercise con-
sideiftbly more authority over their Meknes lodges, which are dose
to the Zerhoim, than to zawiyas in more distant cities. This breakdown
in central authority is characterisdc of most Islamic brotherhoods and
has severely limited the political potential of sach great orders as the
Tijaniyya or even the Isawiyya.

Ideally, the muqaddim is unanimoudy chosen by the foqra, or
adepts, who meet at the ixmyz about a month or six weeks after the
death or retirement of the previous muqaddim. The lodge members
discuss the possible candidates, who may be present but usually arrive
later, after a decision has been reached. '*The muqaddim must be in-
telligent, a good judge of people, and not overly powerful, and he
must have the ability to speak to people at all levels,** an adept of one
of the zawiyas explained. When the adepts have come to an agree-
ment — there is no formal voting— they say a jatha, or prayer, over
thdr new leader, and send word of hb appointment to the mizwar.
A few dxys later, the new muqaddim usually sponsors a ceremony to
celebrate his election.

In fact, the appointment of a new muqaddim usually involves con-
siderable politicking, in the course of which various delegations of
foqra visit the mizwar to press for their particular candidate. The

THE LODGES OF MEKNE8

mizwar then makes a decision based upon the popularity of the candi-
date, the strength of his loyalty, his knowledge of the litanies, his
leadership qualities, and, above all else, his honesty. He lets word of
his preference leak down to the adepts, who then meet to **decide"
upon their new leader. The preferred candidate, who is well aware of
the mizwar's choice, does not arrive until after the foqra have had a
reasonable amount of time to make their decision, and he acts surprised
when he learns of it. He declines at first but, upon the insistence of
the lodge members, he finally permits them to say a fatha over him
and declare him their new leader. The mizwar is then informed of the
"decision" and sends the muqaddim a letter of congratulations and
authority and the flag. The muqaddim is then expected to sponsor a
ceremony in which litanies are chanted, the b^dra performed, and a
meal served. The ceremony serves to announce his appomtment to
important local personages like the muqaddim of the ^Isawiyya and
the foqra of the other Hamadsha brotherhood. It also helps the muqad-
dim consolidate his position in the lodge, for his rivals and their sup-
porters, having accepted his hospitality— shared his bread — are obhged
to befriend and support him.

In the spring of 1968, the muqaddim of the ^\llalivyin died. He had been
leader of the zawiya for over twenty years and, well-established in his
position, he had been able to cheat the children of Sidi 'x\li out of much of
the zawiya's proceeds. Although some of the adepts respected the muqad-
dim, many others disliked him. Several of these, like Sidi Mohammed
Touijer, had begun to attend the meetings of the Dghughiyyin. For several
weeks after the muqaddim*s deadi, there was mudi q>^niIation among the
adepts of both lodges as to who would become the new muqaddim. One
group of *AllaIiyyin supported the assistant (kbaUfa) to the former muqad-
dim, a seller of amulets and leather scraps; a second a man named Ahmed,
a butcher's assistant; and a third, Touijer, a tanner. Touijer, a man in his
thirties, was the youngest of the three. Fach group of supporters sent a
delegation to the miz.war at Reni Rachid to push tlieir candidate and to
disparage his rivals. The supporters of the khalifa argued that their can-
didate was older and more familiar witli the traditions of the /.awi\a tliail

either Touijer or Ahmed and that Touijer was a Dghughi at heart and
Ahmed was a drank. Touijer's supporters argued that dieur candidate knew
the litanies best and that he was very honest. They maintained that the
khalifa was as didionest as the former muqaddim and that Ahmed was a
drunk. Ahmed's supporters used similar arguments.

The mizwar told the different delegations that he would have to think
the matter over and would let them know. He then went secretly to the
muqaddim and khalifa of the Dghughiyyin and asked them their opinion.

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THE laAMADSHA

They were very pleased that he had asked them. The mizwar himself was
amdous to improve rdadons with them—relations had deteriorated ever
since the former muqaddim had been appointed leader of the 'Allaiiyyin.

The two leaders of the Dghughij^in n^d the muqaddim to choose
Touijer. The mizwar decided finally to appoint Touijer ttn^porary maqad-

dim (and Ahmed khalifa), and sent a letter to this effect to his lodge in
Meknes. This served to avoid a "mock election" which, under the circum-
stances, might have been embarrassing. It served also as a test for Touijer.
His appointment would be validated, the mizwar said, immediately after the
musem. In other words, Touijer would have to collect enough money to
make his appointment worthwhile to the mizwar. Touijer, who was a hard
worker, was familtar with the ways of not only the conservative adepts of
the madina but also with those of the rural immigrants to the city, who had
until then gravitated toward the ^amadsha of the bidonvilles. Thus he was
able to collect enough mon^ to please the mizwar, and was appointed
permanent muqaddim.

In August, about six weeks after his appointment, Touijer sponsored a
ceremony to which he invited not only the 'Allaliyyin but also the Dghu-
ghiyyin and the muqaddim of the 'Isawiyya. The latter, an educated man
who acts unofficially as the leader of all the muqaddims of Meknes, was
unable to come but sent his khalifa. Midway through the ceremony, the
khalifa of die Isawiyya and the Dghughiyyin excused themselves and went
Into a s^wnue xoom where, **mach to dieir ■iirprue,*' ^e mtM|Bddim Mrved

them couscous and then handed a letter to the ^wi to reald. It was the

muqaddim*s letter of appointment. After the letter was read, all of the
Dghughiyyin said a fatfaia over him, and the new muqaddim gave them the
first proceeds of his night, which was a substantial offering of over 60
dirhams. They then returned to the ceremony.

The muqaddim is charged with administration of the lodge; the col-
lection of alms; the organization and direction of ceremonies; curing
the sick during ceremonies and at other times; and settling minor dis-
putes between the adepts. He is the liaison between the zawiya and
the mizwar and between the zawiya and the municipal government.
He is considered an authority on Hamadsha lore and leads the foqra
in the recitation of the litanies. He is assisted by a khalifa^ who mav
act also as his messenger. The khalifa is charged with keeping the
supplies of the lodge and with letting all of the foqra know the
schedule of ceremonies. The muqaddim and khalifa of the 'Allaliyyin
both keep records of the alms and other proceeds from ceremonies
that have been collected; the muqaddim safeguards the proceeds.
Among the Dghughiyyin, a treasurer (khzana) keeps the money, and
the muqaddim, the khalifa, and a registrar {katib) each keep separate

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THB L00GB8 OF MBKMS8

records as a check on the treasurer and on each other. These records

are shown to the mizwar when the proceeds are presented to him.

£ach zawiya also has two female caretakers who keep the lodge dean,
care lor tie guests' slippers at the lodge, and take charge of female
participants during the ceremonies. The muqaddim, the khalifa, the
treasurer, the registrar, and the caretakers are the only "officers^* of
the zawiya, and they receive compensation in one form or another
from the mizwar.

The Foqra

The foqn-'today there are about 15 in each zaw^a^-ore not or-
ganized into any hierarchy. They do not go through any form of
initiation or receive any secret instruction.* Th^ are simply men who
attend the meetings at the zawiya and assist regularly at the cere-
monies. They may, in fact, belong to other orders as well, although
none of the present-day adepts do. They usually dance the b^dra and
fall into trance, but dancing and trancing are by no means qualifica-
tions for membership, nor is any detailed knowledge of the litanies.
Many of them play the hourglass-shaped drum, the gotu/. Most of the
foqra will have invited their fellow lodge brothers to their homes
for a sadaqa — a seance at which litanies are recited, the hadra per-
formed, and a meal served--shortly after beginmng to attend the lodge
with any regularity. The sadaqa will usually have been accompanied
by the sacrifice of a male goat or a ram. They all consider themselves
to be foqra of the za\idya and followers of its founding saint, fxom
whom they derive their good fortune and baraka which enables them
to perform the badra and experience the bal.

The nature of an adept's relarionship to his saint is complicated.
Many Moroccans feel ried to a particular saint ixdio serves them as an
almost personal intermediary with God. They speak of themselves
as supported {mstamad) by the saint. In some instances the relation-
ship may be formalized, but this is not necessary. A man's hair may
have been cut for the first time in the saint's tomb. His parents may
have taken him (or her) to the tomb when he was first born and
"given" him to the saint. If there are descendants of the saint, tiie
child may be presented to their leader for blessing. The leader says

* Although there is no initiation ceremony in either the lodges or teams of
Meknes, tnere may be initiatory practices elsewhere. Schoen (1937:12, fn. 1)
chims that die moqaddlm's spitting on die head of t new l^amdoshi serves as an
initiation.

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THE 9AMAD8HA

the fatha over the child — he may spit or blow on it— an exchange for
money or a gift from the parents. The presentation of the child to the
saint or to Us descendants usually occurs only if the cfaUd was bom
after the parents had made a pilgrimage to the saint to ask for one. If
a man was never formally presented to a saint, he may still in later life
obtain the 8aint*s support by making a pilgrimage to lus tomb, asking
the saint to be his support, and leavii^ an offering. Often, the inspira-
tion for this IS a dream which occurs during a crisb in the man's life.

H. was apparendy woiried because he had publicly supported the Kii^ of
Morocco during his exile and had been warned that he would be duown
into prison if he condoned. He had a series of dreams about Moulay Idriss,
the last of which involved a man who had appeared in earlier dreams. The
man gave hint n \\ hite candle. H. asked the man what he was going to do
with the candle. The man said to bring it to him. The next day H. left for
Moulay Idriss and prayed. He did not ask to become msaiinad, but when
he left the tomb he found IV2 dirhams in front of it and has considered him-
self msannad by Moulay Idriss ever since. He stresses the fact that he did
not choose Moulay Idriss but Moulay Idriss called him. The man in the
dream was Moulay Idris&

Although many Moroccans are not msannad by any particular saint,
and although the formalization of such a relationship is neither re-
quired nor fixed, once a man is supported by a saint he cannot be
msannad by another. This does not mean that he cannot visit other
saints to ask their help. He is always privileged to do this.

Neither the descendants of Sidi *Ali or Sidi Ahmed nor the foqra
are necessarily supported by either Sidi *Ali or Sidi Ahmed. Many of
the saints* descendmts have had their first haircuts in the tomb of
one of the lesser Zeriioun saints. The foqra consider themselves to be
followers {uMm) or workers (kheddama) of one of the Hamadsha
saints, but they may be msannad to other saints or to no particular
saint at alL Those who are msannad to one of the Qamadsha saints
usually come from a family in which there were already either
Qamadsha or members msannad by the saint; they were most often
presented to the mizwar for his blessing. Qamadsha who wanted theur
sons to become head-slashers occasionally brought them to the tomb
of one of the saints and pressed their heads down on a miniature of
the axe with which the Qamadsha traditionally slashed their heads.

The distinction between being supported by a saint and being a
follower of one is not altogether dear. Ideally, one can obtain every-
thing one wants, Allah wiUing, through either one's supporting same

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THE LODGES OF MEKNES

or the saint one follows (or, for that matter, from any saint). The
main difPerence appears to be one of focus and exchange. The fol-
lower works for the saint he follows; that is, he participates in (or at
least attends) the Hamadsha ceremonies, the proceeds of which are
given to the saint. He has unwittingly obtained the baraka of the
saint, much in the same way that the Sufi mystic obtains the it is
descended from God (or the saint). It cannot be obtained by work;
but once havii^ obtained it, the recipient is obliged to work for the
saint. He gives the proceeds from his work (the ceremonies) to the
saint, or his descendants, in exchange for the baraka he has obtained
from ium. This baraka not only enables the follower to perfoim the
hadra and experience the hai (in the Hamadsha sense of the word)
but, so long as he works for the saint, it keeps him in good fortune
and health as well. Strictly speaking, one does not work for one*s
supporting saint unless one is also a follower. There are many people
msannad by either Sidi 'Ali or Sidi Ahmed who never perform the
badra or attend a Hamadsha ceremony. The person who is supported
by a saint finds his saint to be a moral and psychological support in all
the domains of his life. Although the saint theoretically is only an
intermediary to God, for the average illiterate Moroccan he is the
source itself of comfort and solace, help and support.

The position of the adepts in urban society is difficult to determine.
Although LeToumeau has suggested that there is a correlation be-
tween membership in the l^amadsha brotherhoods and in certain pro-
fessions (1949: 366), I was able to find no evidence of this in Meknes.^
The adepts do belong to the lowest economic strata of the madina —
they earn less than five dirhams a day — and are engaged in occupations
in which they not only use but often dirty their Imnds; they are either
totally or nearly illiterate; but they are neither recruited from nor do
they dominate any one occupational group. They themselves rec-
ognize no connection between being a yamdushi and having a cer-
tain occupation. The diversity of their professional ties is illustrated

in Table 1. And just as there appears to be no reUtionship between
occupation and membership in the brotherhoods, so there seems to be
no relationship between membership and place of residence or work.
The lodge cannot be conceived of as either a "professional" or a neigh-
borhood organization.

The foqra, like the Hamadsha generally, have been stereotyped by
many wealthier, more literate Moroccans as being black, and many of

'LeCoeor (1958:98> daims that in Azzemcmr the Uacksmidis, driveis, pocteis,
and fisfaennen wen affiHated with the hamadsha.

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86 THE I^AMADSHA

TABLE 1

FrtfftssUm

^AUaliyyin

Dthughiyyin

Baker's assistant

Barber

Butcher

Carpenter

Cloth inerchaac

Cook

Gardener

Grain merchant

Greengrocer

Jallaba merchant

Lime dealer

Pallbearer

Porter

Shoemaker

Tailor

Tanner

Weaver

* The baker's assistant joioed the army and now liyes <m a pensicMi without

working.

them are often considered to be black. They are, nevertheless, differen-
tiated from the members of the so-called black confinitemity, the
Gnawa, who daim to be descendants or foUowen of Sidina Bilal, the
Prophet's slave, and who until a few decades ago spoke African lan-
guages. Since Moroccan notions of race are social typifications and
not biological ones, such statements as "The Qamadsha are black^
must be understood not from a racial, or even an ethnic, point of view,
but as a means of ascribing relative social status. In Morocco, a per-
son's racial identity varies according to his own social status and to
the status of the person classifying him.

It is possible— and there is some evidence for this— diat historically
many of the ^Jamadsha were recruited from among the black daves
who were brought north from sub-Saharan Africa, and that their
stereotype as black also reflects this. The tribal affiliation of the two
orders suggests this. (See Table 2.) The Filala, the Bukhara, and the
Drawa, who make up 40% of the membership of both orders, may

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THE LODGES OF MEKNE8 87

TABLB 2

irtot

iff St

A
f

%
J

Drawa

Fez*

Gharbawfl

Jbliya

Mckncs*

Ouazzana

Taza*

Zrahna (Zerhoun)

* No ineinocy of tribal affiliarion.

have come originally from sub-Saharan Africa. The Bukhara were
brought to Meknes by Moulay Ismail as military slaves.

The fact that only two of the foqra consider their families to be
from Meknes, and that these are unable to recaU their tribal origin, is
indicative of the recent arrival of the majority of foqra to the city.
(Genealogies tend to be shallow; three ascending generations appear
to be the limit.) But unlike the Hamadsha of the shantytowns, who
are primarily first-generation arrivals the foqra of the madina ace
second or third generation."^

Since more than half of the 'AUaliyyin and 80% of the Dghughiyyin
are over 45, the families of the adepts appear to have been attracted
to the city not by work opportunities created by the arrival of the
French but by those created by pre-Protectorate city life in general.
Many of the foqra explain that their parents or grandparents first came
to Meknes because they were called in by the government to fill
specific positions for which there was a shortage of men.

Membership in the Qamadsha brotherhoods is not hereditary. Since
both orders were apparently loosely organized before they obtained

"Ten of the 15 ^Allaliyyin were bom in Meknes, as were 9 of their fathers;
9 of the 15 Dghughiyyin were born there, 4 of their fathers, and only one of
their paternal grandtttiieca. Infonnatioa coooenmig die paternal gfandndicis of
the ^AUaliyyin is incompieie. Few, If any of them, appear to have been bom in
Meknes.

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their zawiyas in the beginning of this century, and since many of the
parents of the present-day adepts were not bom in Meknes, it is im-
possible to determine whether or not zawiya membership followed
family lines. There does appear to be a tendency for the adepts of both
lodges to come from families in which at least one parent performed
the hadra. This is true for 8 *Allaliyyin (7 fathers and 2 mothers, with
an overlap of one) and 11 Dghughiyyin (II fathers and 5 mothers,
with an overlap of 5). Although my data for the second ascending
generation are incomplete, they suggest that a significant number of
paternal grandparents also performed the hadra. It should be pointed
out, however, that there arc 8 families among the adepts of both zawiyas
in which the present-day adept is the only Hamdushi.

Four of the wives of the 9 married 'Allaliyyin and 3 of the wives
of the 13 married Dghughiyyin participate in the hadra. A smaller
number of children appear to be following in their fathers' footsteps.*
This is usually explained away as the result of education. The foqra
themselves recognize that the Hamadsha come from among the illiter-
ate, and it is not unusual to hear them say that so-and-so's children
do not perform the hadra because they have been to school.

Apart from the regular adepts, who often play drums at a ceremony,
there are piofesaonal musicians — ghiyyata, or oboe players — attached
to the orders. The ghita Is die most impoitaiit instrument of the
hadra, and playing it requires considerable ddll and endurance. The
exact status of the ghiyyata in the Hamad^a brotherhoods has been a
source of confusion to other investigators. Although the ghiyyata haye
been affiliated with the zawiya for years, they are treated as distinct
from the foqra, both because they receive remuneration for each per-
formance and because they ply their trade elsewhere as well. (The
ghita, usually a smaller version of the ghita gharbavjiyya used by the
Qamadsha, is played at marrii^ and circumciaons and at the cere-
monies of other brotherhoods like the ^sawiyya and the Jilaliyya.)
Moreover, their experience of the hal is different from that of other
adepts, who may fall into a more frenetic trance called jidba. The
ghiyyata, who must exercise great self-control, cannot enter such a
state without disrupting the badra entirely.

*At least one diild of 3 'Allal^ryin— 8 have chiUben— and one child of 4
Dghuriiiyyin — 8 have children — participate in the |udxa. It should be nored that,
considering the age of the adepts, an above-average number of ^Allaliv yin (6 out
of 15) are sinele and an above-average number of the married Dgliughiyyin (5
out of 8) are childless.

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There are two ghiyyata in each brotherhood; they play the guitar
(ganbri) and recorder (nira) as well. JBach of the four ghiyyata comes
from a family in which members performed the hadra; one of them
is a descendant of Sidi Ahmed Dghuglii. Ghita playing is the only
source of income for three of them; the fourth also sells rugs. The
rug merchant comes from an old Meknes family. The other three come
from the Jebel Zerhoun.

Each lodge also has a professional ganbri player. This role is not so
well differentiated as that of the ghiyyata, and it may be unique to
the iMeknes orders. Usually, the ghiyyata also play the ganbri. The
two ganbri players come from the Gharb and earn their Hving by
playing and begging. One of them attends the ceremonies of both
orders regularly. They, too, are paid for their performances and are
not considered f oqra.

The Muhibbin

The last and largest group associated with the lodges is the muhib-
bin, or devotees, of the order. The word "muhibbin" is derived from
the Arabic for love {biib)^ and refers to all the men, women, and
children who are in some manner attracted to the hadra of the
Haniadsha and who attend the performances — usually of one or tlie
other of tlie two brotherhoods — ^whenever they can. They do not
necessarily meet at other times or under other circumstances. 1 hey
are, as it were, rlie tertiaries of the order. The hadra (and, to a lesser
extent, other ceremonies of the lodges) is the focal point of the muhib-
bin; it is tlie one activity in which they all engage. The devotees fonn
a group, as it is classicallv defined by sociologists, insofar as there is
social interaction between them, but they differ from the "group" in-
sofar as there is no clear-cut boundary between member and non-
member. The fluid boundaries of the muhibbin arc typical not just of
the Hamadsha but of other religious confraternities of the Islamic
world.

There are definite diff^erences among muhibbin, which arc rec-
ognized both by the foqra and by the devotees themselves. Although
it is possible to speak of a particularly active devotee as a Tmihibb
kabir, a great devotee, there are no verbally differentiated categories
of muhibbin. Differences arc expressed by tone of voice or by para-
phrasis. There appear to be two distinct factors which determine what
kind of mul>ibb an individual is: the intensity of his involvement with

Copy riyt ilea iriaiciial

THE HAMADSHA

the hadra, and the frequency of his attendance at the hadra. The latter
can easily be measured. Some muhibbin attend the hadra from three to
four times a week; others, once or twice a year. Intensity of involve-
ment is more difficult to determine. Some devotees perform the hadra,
enter into a frenetic trance, and mutilate themselves; others simply
like to attend the ceremonies but do not participate. Figure 2 presents
a somewhat arbitrary summary of the degree of involvement of the

FIGURE 2.

THE LODGES OF MEKNE8

mu^bbin. There are 9 measures of intensity and 4 measures of fre-
quency, providing 3d possible categories of mu^bbin. (An understand-
ing of ail of the significant measures will be possible only after an
analysis of the hadra and patterns of trance has been made.) All of
the factors listed are recognized by the ^jamadsha themselves, although
the compulsive quality of some of the activities is recognized by only
the more perceptive.

There are no formal ties between the muhibbin and the zawiya.
The foqra know many of them and invite them to their ceremonies,
but all of the devotees do not attend any one performance. They
form clusters of individuals who attend one another's ceremonies.
Only the most active devotees are present at all of a zawiya*s perform-
ances. The composition of these clusters is informal; they consist of
both patnlateral and matrilateral relatives, friends, neighbors, work
associates, and other devotees respected for their piety, their devotion
to the founding saints of the orders, or the intensity of their b^dra
(as measured by the factors in Figure 2). The clusters overlap and
may best be conceived as an ^ggrtgate of individual networks in
which there is a high incidence of recurrent membership (cf. Barnes
1968:118). A network — a primary order star in Barnes' terminology
— is limited here to all of the devotees whom an individual will in-
vite to ceremonies he sponsors. The network has, of course, no external
boundaries and no clear-cut internal divisions.

BowHem and His Network

Booalem b a typical madina muhibb of the ^amadsha, although at 30 he
Is perhaps a litde younger than average. He was bom in die madina of
Meknes. His paternal grandfodier, a member of the Chaooia tribe from the
countryside around Gaaablanca, came to JVf eknes as a young man. Boualem

still considers himself a member of the Qiaouia, aldioi^ he has never
visited his tribal "homeland." He has been told that not only is there the
belief in *Aisha Qandisha and other jnun there, but also a spot sacred to

Sidl 'All ben Hamdush. It is said that Sidi 'AH spent some time there on his

way to Bu'abid Sharqi in Marrakech. This spot, which is marked bv a
qubba and a sacred fig tree, is visited people suffering from headaches,
paralysis, and other "problems" caused by the jnun. Women anxious to
have children also visit it. Not only are there ^amadsha in the area but also
%awa, Jilala, and Darqawa. Most of the members of Boualem*s immediate
family are Hamadsha, as the partial genealogy in Figure 3 indicates.

His parents often invited the Hamadsha to their house; his father, a peasant,
was particularly prone to attacks of the jnun which took the form of paraly-
sis, and could only be cured by the ^dra.

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THE 9AMAD8HA

ill i-r-i

C60

^or9 ^AORA PERFORMER

A HEAD-SLASHER

FIGURE 3.

Boualem went to Koranic school for only seven months, and he never at-
tended government school. He is capable of signing his name, but can
neither read nor write anything else. He works for a Frenchman in a wine

cellar and claims that among the Frenchman's workers there are many

niuhibbin. He never worked as an apprentice for a master artisan and, like
Other madina inhabitants, he works the harvest in the vicinitv of Mcknes
whenever possible. Boualem, who has always lived in Meknes, now rents a
house in the meUah, or Jewi^ quarter, of the city, to whidi many Arabs
moved after the Jewish exodus in the late fifties. Rents are cheaper there.
Boualem is married to a Berber who was bom in Meknes. (Arab-Berber
marriages are still the exception, even in the city.) He has three children,
the oldest of whom is 7 and goes to school. They are too "small'* to per-
form the l^dra.

Boualem has made several pilgrimages to Sidi 'All and has experienced the
hal and performed the hadra. He was 15 years old when he first danced.
He had a fever at the time, his bones ached, and he felt as though "water
were boiling in his head." He slashed his head. It had begun to sting and
felt as though there were a "worm" in it. Since then, he tries to dance at
least four times a month. (His rifp is from the Zcrhoun; his color is black;
and ^Aisha Qandisha is his jiimiyya.y He seldom slashes his head now. He
attends the performances of the 'Allaliyyin, but as they are not active
enough today to satisfy his needs, he also attends performances given by
a team from a litde town just outside Meknes. If he does not perform the
hadra often enough, his body begins to tremble, his hands become heavy,
his knees shake, and he is vulnerable to attadcs by the jnun. He, or his
parents, invites the ^amadsha at least once a year.

'These terms will be explained later.

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THE LODGES OF MEKNES

Boualem has a nuiiiber of acquaintances who are nnih]]>b]n. He invites them
to his ceremonies, and diey invite him to theirs. Fourteen devotees— those
with whom Boualem immediately associates both socially and psychologi-
cally — ^were interviewed.® Two of them were his brothers. They all con-
sider themselves muhibbin; with one exception, they all fall into the first
twelve categories of dev^otccs. This reflects the fact that the term "muhibbin"
refers primarily to the most active — the most intensely involved — Ha-
madsha. No women are included in the group. Although there are undoubt-
edly certain women who usually attend Boualem's ceremonies, they are,
owing to the segregation of the sexes, part of Boualem's wife's or motfaer^s
network. Boualon himself cannot invite them. Invitations must pass either
through his wife or their husbands.

Figure 4 summarizes the significant facts concerning the members of
Boualem's network. The members all live in the madina, but in no single
quarter. With two exceptions they are all about Boualem's age and are
probably somewhat younger than the average muhibb. Their age also ac-
coonts for the high percentage who are sin^e. The average muhibb is
married. The fact that only 5 of them were bom in Meknes is also excep-
tionaL Of the 12 devotees who are not related to Boualem, only one is of
his tribe; the majority of diem are not related either by blood or marriage.
They tend to work in the same area of Meknes; tanners are well repre-
sented. It appears that occupational ties are here not altogether insignificant
— even though, in this case ar least, thev are established not through the
nodal figure of the network but through his brothers, both of whom are
themselves tanners. It is possible then to state that the muhibbin in Boua-
lem's network are about his age and occupy social positions wiiich are sim-
ilar to his both in terms of the type of work and degree of integration into
the turban milieu.

With one exception, all of the devotees perform the hadra; 6 of them slash
their heads. They all appear to need to dance at least three times a month,

'These devotees may be conceived of as forming a network (a pnmaiy (Mrder

star) with Boualem as the center (Barnes 1968:113). This network must not be
reified or considered as an indigenous conceptualization of a social reality. It is
an analytic device, employed by the investigator, and must be taken as such.
Booalem h in no taut • leader of the network; he has tSmpfy been taken as a
reference point for a particular investigation. The 14 persons interviewed do not
comprise Boualem's complete netu^-ork; a network is in the final analysis boundless.
Ratlier dicy were chosen because they were the devotees he iuvkes to has n%hCB.
(It was impossible to ascertain how frequently he invited them.) He gave the
same names when asked who invites him to their nights; however, as a second

?uestion, this answer was, in a sense, prefigured. Boualem probably suspected that
would wuit to interview them and may, therefore, have chosen those with
whom he was especially friendly- Although this nicrhoJ of inquiry is not alto-
gether satisfactory, it does, in my opinion, give an adequate picture of the muhibbin
and their social relations. It is notevvonhy that Boualem did not list his father,
widi whom he often ^kmisob ceremonies; he did name his btodieEs.

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THE 9AMADSHA

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FIGURE 4.

and they all express the same symptoms of heaviness, d^ression, and
lethargy if they do not dance. The ^dn appears to invigorate them. Eleven
of the 14 started to dance between the ages of 10 and 20; 17 is the average
age. Six of them were, like Boualem, sick before they fell into trance for
the first time. This sickness was said in all cases ro be caused by the jnun.
Thirteen report that other members of their family perform the hadra;
10 had at least one parent who danced. All of them have made pilgrimages
to the founding saints of the Zerhoun. Most of them perfonn die hadra
publicly as well as privately; they or dieir parents have all invited die
^amadsha to perform. It is signiiScant that they do not all attend the

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THE LODGES OF MEKNES

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FIGURE 4.

ceremonies of a single zawiya. Many of diem, like Boualem, go to the

ceremonies given by other teams.

Perhaps the feature diat the devotees have most in common is the Zerhoun
rih^ and devotion to 'Aisha Qandisha. It is curious diat despite considerable
tribal representation all of the members of Boualem's network, with the

*The n|r, whidi is exatnined later in this study, b a tune, or musical phrase,
that will send a particular adept or devotee into trance. E^ch person is believed
to have such a tune, which is associated with a particular jinn and a particular
eokx. The ribs ^ hieo several groups, named alter tAtl regkuisi Imt re^xmse
to them is not restricted to tribal members.

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THE ^AMADSHA

excq»tion of one of his brotheis, have a tnnce-inducing tune from the
same musical group. Whedier this is accidental or caused by some social
or p^chological predisposition must be left an open but by no means in-
significant question.

A General Picture

Boualem and the other members of his network are not unusual
mutMbbin. They exhibit many of the social and psychological char-
acteristics of the average mubibb. Such a devotee, at least one who falls
into the first 12 categories of Figure 2, refers to himself as a
mul^b and considers himself a follower of either Sidi *A]i or Sidi
Ahmed. He does not speak of himself as working for the saint, as the
adepts do. He is usually devoted to 'AMia Qwdi^ as well.^^ He
has made at least one pilgrimage to Beni Rachid or Beni Ouarad, and
he makes every effort possible to attend the annual pilgrimage. He
does not play an instrument. Occaaonally he attends the Friday after-
noon ceremonies (see below) at one of the zawiyas, and the private
ceremonies of either zxmytL whenever he is invited. If he must dance
frequently— three tunes a month or more— he usually attends ceremo-
nies peif onned by teams not affiliated with the zawiyas. He may even
invite them himself. This results from the moribund cM>ndition of the
zavdyvs and die more spectacular performances of the teams.

He is usually bom in Meknes, but can still state his tribal or^in. If
he is older than the members of Boualem's network, his family has
come to tbe city at least a generation before him. He will have a trade
in which he works with his hands and often dirties them. He earns about
five dirhams a day and belongs to no particular gaUd or occupational
group. If he falls within the age range of Boualem*s network, he tends
to be less integrated into the urban milieu. He is usually completely or
quasi-illiterate. He goes to the mosque on Friday but, like many Mo-
roccans, sekiom performs his daily prayers. There are usually other
members of his family who have performed the hadra, often one of his
parents. His family comes from an area in which there was a belief in
'AjEsha Qandisha and in which there were l^amadsha, but from no one
tribal group. Often — ^perhaps more often than in Boualem's network —
he traces his devotion to the Hamadsha to an illness, usually conceived
in terms of being struck or possessed by ^Aisha Qandisha or other jnun,
which was cured either by the Hamadsha themselves or by a pilgrim-
age to the tombs of the founding saints. This illness often appears to

''The exact nature of this zdadoDsh^ yriSl be examined in Fart Thcee.

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THE LODGES OF MEKNES

the Western observer as hysterical in nature. If his trance dance has
not been "a good one" — that is, a satisfying experience— or if he has
not danced in a long time, he suffers a mild depression, a general ma-
laise, and parasthetic pains which he describes as "'pinching bones."
Sometimes he experiences a recurrence of the symptoms which first
caused him or his family to invite the ^amadsha to treat him.

The members of his network are all men and tend to be of his age.
There is considerable vaiiation in tiis relationship to them, although
they often work in the same quarter as he and may often be members
of his profession or a profession which is centered near his own. They
may be members of his tribal group, and usually at least a few of them
are related to him. It is impossible to state whether they, like the mem-
bers of Boualem's network, share the same rib, although they have in
common their devotion to 'Aisha Qandisha.

The Ceremonies of the Zawiya

There are three principal ceremonies which are given by the adepts
of the zawiyas and wiiich provide the zawiyas with the funds necessary
for their maintenance and for their gifts to the children of their respec-
tive saints. One of them — the lila, or night — often serves as a curing
ceremony, and is treated in detail in the third part of this work.

Of the other two ceremonies, the first is the Friday afternoon meet-
ing. It is very informal and subject to considerable variatu)n. The
doors of the zawi3ras, which are usually kept locked, are opened every
Friday afternoon— the Muslim Sabbath — to both the foqra and the
general public. The regular members of the lodge gather there to drink
tea, gossip, and chant a few of their litanies — ^whidiever litanies they
know best and like the most.^^ The adepts do not perform the hadra
there because, they claim, the entire floors of both lodges are "covered
with tombstones." It appears that the foqra used to perform the b^dra
on Fridays but that in recent years they have given up the practice, not
only because of the tombstones but because their age. Friday hadras
are now performed by the bidonville teams in front of Sheikh al-
Kamal.^

''The manner of recitation and the content of die litanies is discussed in the
section on the night. Litanies recited at the zawiyas are the same as those recited
at the nights, but they are repeated in a calmer manner. They are not designed
to send me adepts into an ecstatic transport

Before the adepts had lodges, they used to meet in the cemetery near Sheikh
al-Kamal on Fridays to pecf onn. At this time there seems to have been no concern

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THE 9AMADSHA

There are usually some male visitors who stop to leave a few francs,
a candle or so, or even occasionally a chicken, but the majority of Fri-
day visitors are women who come to glean some of the baraka of the
place, to have a prayer said for them by the mu<]piddhn or another
brother, and to listen to the litanies.*' Apart from acting out general
devotkm to the saints and *Aisha Qandisha, who is often said to oblige
an individual to leave something at the zawiya each week, the women
also usually come to ask for something^-a child, relief ^m stomach
pains or pinching bones," the preservation of a marriage, or simply
good luck. They too leave candles, bread, sugar, or couscous. Often,
especially at the lodge of the Dghughiyyin, they will tie bits of doth
to the branches of the fig tree as a sign of a vow (^ar) to do something
for the saint or 'Aisha Qandisha— usually sacrifice a chicken^if what
they asked for comes true. Such visits may be likened to the pilgrimage
to die saint's tomb.

Although the Friday afternoon ceremonies are a constant source of
income for the lodges, the second ceremony, the name-day ceremony,
a regular feature of the Moroccan life-cyde which takes place seven
days after a child's birth, is said to be the zawi3^*s chief source of in-
come. The foqra of the Hamadsha brotherhoods— like those of other
brotherhoods-^are often invited to the name-day festivities of wealthy
muhibbin and other wealthy madina inhabitants who wish their chil-
dren to be msannad by dther Sidi *Ali or Sidi Ahmed or, at leasts to
glean some of the baraka of the saints. The adepts repeat the fatba over
die newborn child and often chant litanies. This is said to give the
child some of the saint*s baraka. The fbqra usually attend the sacrifice
of a male goat or ram and partake of the communal meal at the end of
the festivities.

If a couple has been able to have children only after a visit to dther
Sidi 'Ali or Sidi Ahmed, the f oqrt who work for the particular sauit
hdd responsible for the child's birth may be adced to name him. This
is considered a great honor by the adepts and a guarantee of contuiued
good fortune for both parents and child. If an infant is bom to an
adept, his father will usually invite the foqra of his zawiya to perform
the b^dra as well as to redte prayers and litanies. The members of his

about dancing over the graves of the dead; the older adepts, however, maintain
that the govenunent stopped dieir perfofmances because they took place in the
cemetery.

"It must be remembered that women in the Islamic world do not attend the
services at a mosque. Worship of saints and associated cults provides women with
some **oomniuiial leligioas accivi^."

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TH£ LODGES OF MBKNB8

lodge will usually send him senile sugar In the moniing befoie the
ceremony, to help him pay for it. He does not have to pay them, but
the lodge receives all of the alms collected during the ceremony. Often,
to feed all the guests, the adept will have to borrow money from the
zawiya and return it when he can; he usually adds a few extra dirhams
when he repays this loan. If a mu^bb or someone else not related to
the zawiya invites the lodge members, they must pay the lodge between
20 and 50 dirhams for the ceremony.

Distribution of Income

The money and gifts collected at the ceremonies are theoretically
for the children of the saint as a genealogical extension of the saint
himself. They are held by either the muqaddim of the zawiya, as in the
case of the 'Allaliyyin, or the treasurer, as In the case of the Dgfau-
ghiyyin, until the annual pilgrimage, when they are given to the miz-
war for distribution to the children of the saint In the course of the
year, the money may be lent to foqra, or to friends of the foqra by way
of a particular adept, to tide them through periods of financial strain
such as a birth, a circumcision, a marriage, an illness, or a death in the
family. Although no interest is charged for such a loan, it is expected
that the bonower will return somewhat more than he borrowed If
the adept is particularly poor, he is given the money outright. In this
way, die zawiya functions as a socie^ for mutual protection.

In fact all of the alms and gifts received by the lodge do not go to
the mizwar. Aside from the money given outright to the poorest adepts
when they are in financial crisis, many of the gifts are perishable and
so are distributed immediately to the foqra and the other poor. Each
zawiya has its own rules, but the differences between them are of litde
importance.

The alms and gifts received by the Dghughiyyin are distributed
in the following manner. The money given the adepts at the Friday
meetings Is left with the treasurer for safe-keeping; the amount Is regis-
tered with the muqaddim, the khalifa, and the registrar. Usually, befoie
oountiiig It, a few francs are distributed to the poorest foqra. (In fact,
an of the foqra receive a little.) The muqaddim, the khalifa, the treas-
urer, and the caretakers do not receive any. Couscous is eaten imme-
diately by the adepts; bread is distributed among the poorest foqra
and among beggais who come to the lodge on Fridays for alms.
Chickens are given to the families of two of Sidi Ahmed's descendants
who live In Meknes. Sugar is saved by the treasurer for ceremonies

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100

THE jyLAMADSHA

like the name-day ceremonies spunsorcd by the adepts. Candies are
sent to Beni Ouarad once a month. Money collected at the name-day
ceremonies is kept by the treasurer, altliough an adept is given a Httlc
if he is in dire need. The proceeds from the curing ceremonies are
saved for the children of the saint, but a part is given to all of the foqra.
The amount is decided by the muqaddim, the treasurer, and three wit-
nesses.

A report is made each month, but it is never shown to the mizwar.
Two days before the annual pilgrimage, the muqaddim, the treasurer,
the registrar, and three witnesses meet in the zawiya under lock and
ke\' to decide how much they w ill give the poorest descendants of Sidi
Ahmed and iiow much they will give the mi/Avar. It appears that each
zawiya gives a little extra to the poorest of Sidi Ahmed's children. The
exact amount is determined on the basis of individual need. (Envelopes
containing the funds are given during the musem.) The remainder of
the year's proceeds are given to the mizwar for distribution. The day
before the musem, the muqaddim, the treasurer, the registrar, and the
three witnesses all visit the mizwar at Beni Ouarad and give him the
money. Before counting it, he gives a token amount (called baraka) to
the registrar and the witnesses and says a fatha for them. Then he
counts the money and divides it into four equal parts; he keeps three
of these and gives the fourth to the muqaddim. The muqaddim divides
his fourth into three parts; he keeps two and gives the third to the
treasurer. Thus he receives one si:i^ of the yaur's proceeds, and the
treasurer one twelfth. The mizwar does not say a fatha for them.^^

"In 1968 the Dghughivyin of iMckncs collected 780 dirhams: 80 dirhams
were divided among the poor descendants of Sidi Ahmed, and the mizwar received
the remaining 700 dirhams. He divided nearly all of this into four parts. Each part,
it is reasonable to assume, was about 170 dirhams. Thus, the mu(|addim received
about in dirhams for his year's work; the treasurer, about 57 dirhams; and the
mizwar was left with about 510 dirhams to distribute to the 200 or so descendants
of Sidi Ahmed, l^h descendant dieoredcally received about 2 J dirhams from
the Mebnes znriyz. (Meknes probably provided considerably more money than
any other tnriyf widi the possible excepcioa of the Fez team.)

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The
Shantytown
Teams

In Meknes in 1968 there were seven teams of Hamadsha which were
not affiliated with the zawiyas of the madina and had no permanent
meeting place. These teams, which were far more active than the urban
lodges, operated throughout the city and nearby countryside; their
members occasionally traveled as far as Fez, or even Rabat, to perform
their ceremonies. Their center of activity was, however, the bidonvilles
of Meknes, and both the team members and the muliMbbin attracted to
their performances were primarily from these shantytowns.

The BrooNviLLES

The population of Meknes, as we noted in the preceding chapter, has
grown rapidly since the arrival of the French. Rural immigrants poured
into the city seeking work; most often they came from the Gharb and
from the countryside around Fez and Meknes — areas in which the
Itiamadsha were particularly active. At first they settled in the madina,

often in the nooks and cnumies of Moulay Ismail's walls or in the cellars
of his palaces — ^which were so extensive and so lab3^rinthine that they
lived there undetected, in some instances, for years. By the early thir-
ties there was such a housing shortage m the city that the immigrants
began to settle in vacant lots just outside the city limits.

Bordj Moulay Omar, the largest of these shantytowns, sprang up in die
early thirties near £1 Minzeh, which had been a pleasure palace for one of
Moulay Ismail's ministers. It was convemently located just north of the new

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102

THE I^AMADSHA

town of Mekna and within a mile of the industrial quarter. By 1935 the
municipal authorities had begun to show some recognition of die shanty-
town's problems, particulady those concerning waste disposal In July 1936
there were 400 households; in 1952 there were 3,104 (Frandii 1959:258);
Bordj had then a population of 11,507. In 1960, four years after inde-
pendence, there were nearly l9fiQ0 inhabitants living on 36 hectares.

The other bidonvilles of Mdmes have had similar histories. The pop-
ulation of Sidi Baba, where most of my shantytown research was con-
ducted, jumped from 5,249 in 1952 to 12,758 in 1960. My own estimate
for its population in 1968 was between 18,000 and 20,000. It covered
5.2 hectares.

The plans of the different shantytowns vary with the lay of the land.
Sidi Baba and Bordj Moulay Omar are located on relatively flat terrain.
They have large squares and appear more open than others which are
built onto steep declivities. Some bidonvilles are considered poorer and
less desirable than others. Sidi Baba is usually preferred. The larger
shantytowns are divided into quarters named after some important
center of activity such as a steam bath, a school, an oven, or a former
football field.^ The largest quarter of Sidi Baba is named after the
Moroccan veterans of World War II and the French-Indochinese wars
who settled there in the fifties and make up a large segment of the
bidonville's population. Although I was not able to find any correlation
between quarter or street and tribal area, Franchi found that the in-
habitants of some streets or quarters in Bordj came from the same tribe
or region of Morocco (Franchi 1959:264).

The houses of the bidonvilles may be made of wattle and daub, clay
bricks, clapboard, reeds, tar paper, or scrap metal. Few if any of them
have more than one story, and this gives the bidonvilles a more open
quality than the madina, with its narrow streets walled in on each side
by two- and three-story windowless houses. All but the poorest huts
have an inner court, which is closed on the top with a grill to prevent
robberies. Perhaps 40% of the houses in Bordj have three or four
rooms; most of the rest are smaller (Franchi 1959:272). Only a handful
have windows facing the street; these are covered with bars and
shutters.

Although each household forms a separate and independent unit,
usually consisting of parents and unmarried children and, occasionally,

'These quaners have no official status. Their names may, however, appear on
mailing adcuesses.

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THE 8HANTYTOWN TEAMS

103

paternal grandparents, uninarried siblings, or rdadves from the coun-
tryside, rooms are sometimes let to strangers. The bldonvine households
are not dosed-in and isolated from one another as are those of the
madina; women, if only by necessity, are not as segregated as in the old
qnarter itself. The fountains at the end of each street, where women
and children go for water; the ovens, where bread is baked for each
household; the steam baths; and the local grocery shops are all centers
of communal activity. They may be considered neighborhood centers,

Les commerfazits et boudquiers sont ]i& i leor cUentile qu'ils coadoient
chaque jour et avec laqueUe lis entredennent d'excellents relations aim
ainsi une oommunaut^ intime parmi toos ces gens. (Franchi 1959:271)

Although it is possible to speak of an intimate community, une cont-
mumti tnthney bidonville life is by no means as harmonious and peace-
ful as this phrase suggests. Rather, it is characterized by feelings of mis-
trust and suspicion. Hardly a day goes by without the spectacle of two
or three women neighbors in a row — ^most often over their children.*
Sometimes these fights become physical and require hospitalization of
at least one of the participants. Men, too, fight — often brutally — and it
is considered unsafe to walk the streets at night. There is much talk of
robbery.

Urbanization

Although the bidonvillcs have retained the more open quahty of the
countryside, thcv' have lost its traditional controls — ties of kin and
mutual obligation — in undergoing what Jacques Berque has aptly called
urbanisation sauvage. The bidonville families have moved to the city
as individual units. Often they had and still have no relatives in Meknes;
or, if they do, their relatives may live on opposite sides of the city.
Friendship among men is not limited to the inhabitants of single neigh-
borhoods or quarters; but women, whose activities arc far more re-
stricted, usually find their friends and enemies in the vicinit\' of their
homes. Often a neighborhood will split into two or more factions,
which will then take sides in the many disputes that occur in such high-
density populations.

'The ease widi which women enter these tantnims leimnds one of the ease
with whidi di^ fall hno trance.

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104 TH£ ^AMADSHA

The bidonvilles arc administered by the municipal authority. They
are usually headed by a ?nuqaddim, to whom every individual must
appeal if he has any affairs whatsoever with the government. The mu-
qaddim is responsible to that khalifa (assistant) of the pasha of Meknes
charged with the particular ward in which the bidonville is located.
It was not my impression that neighborhoods or quarters formed po-
litical units from which leaders were likely to emerge. Such indigenous
patterns of leadership are discouraged by the central government. It is
said that there arc more than a few "secret police" in the shantytowns.
They can usually be spotted by their more expensive shoes, their trench
coats, and by a style of behavior reminiscent of James Bond, who is a
very popular movie hero among them.

The position of the bidonvilles with respect to both city and coun-
tryside is complex, and is reflected in the relationship between the
Hamadsha of the urban zawiyas and those of the sliantytown teams.
The bidonvilles are not independent social entities. On the one hand,
they fall under the municipal administration and, on the other hand,
they are regarded by the inhabitants of the madina (and, to a lesser
extent, by the inhabitants of the bidonvilles themselves) as outside the
confines of the city and part of the countryside, x^lthough it is tempt-
ing to consider this as a result of the rural origin of the shantytown
denizens, it must be noted that in the Mediterranean world the city is
seen to end at its walls. All that lies outside the walls of the city is
countryside.

Jacques Berque (1958:11) has attempted to describe the division be-
tween the two groups, a division he considers, in some way, greater
than that between the madina and the European quarter.

Afais la violence do d^calage qui oppose, de part et d*autre des muailles, le
citadin i son compare rural, est excessive. Le langage, les habitades, l*his-

toire, le mode de vie, la figure meme et les vetements ne les oppose&t moins
Tun a rautce. Le grand style urbain reste coupe du pays. Et cette discorde
de st}-lc qui reflcte unc discorde economique et psychologique, I'appaaviit
et I'expose en cas de crise, a s'etioler.

Although Berque is writing of Tunisia, his observations are applicable
to Morocco as well (cf. LeCoeur 1969:118-120). To what extent this
split aflfects the self-image and self-esteem of the rural immigrant to
the city remains an open question. The bidonville inhabitant does joke
about his rusticity and is critical of urban ways. He is proud of his
ceremonies, his music and, if he happens to be a member of a popular

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105

brotherhood, of the endurance of the country folk in performing the
badra. He is, nevertheless, conscious of his poverty, his illiteracy, his
lack of skilled profession, and the misery of his household. All of the
shantytown dwellers whom I questioned assured me that they would
prefer to live in the madina, which was cleaner, more peaceful, quiet,
and nearer their marketplace and place of work. One woman added,
"where the people are educated and more civilized."

The integration of the bidonville and madina is, nevertheless, to some
extent facilitated by the very structure of Middle Eastern cities like
Meknes. These cities are themselves composed of quasi-independent
units, or quarters, often of distinct ethnicity, which are oriented toward
the central marketplace and administrative center. Coon (1964:232) has
employed a cytological simile for describing the city:

• . . It mi^c be said that the city itself has a cell-like structure with its
own nucleus, its own mechanisms for withstanding shocks from within and
without, and its own ways of absorbing and sloughing of[ foreign materials.

The bidonvilles show some signs of becoming quarters of the city, but
they are, at the same time, developing and maintaining their own sepa-
rate character. This is best illustrated by the recent appearance of a cult
and musem to Sidi Ma'sud, who is buried in Bordj Moulay Omar. In
1968 there was some talk of a musem to another, as yet legendless, saint,
Sidi Baba, whose burial place has not yet been discovered but is be*
lieved to be in the vidni^ of the bidonville named after him.

The principal tie between bidonville and city is economic. Franchi
(1959:267-268) found that in the late fifties only 14% of the working
population of Bordj Moulay Omar worked in Bordj itself. Only 30%
of the total population of the bidonville (54.8% of the potential work-
ing population) were employed then, 63% of these as day laborers.
Akhough there have been a number of changes in the economic struc-
ture of Meknes since Franchi*s study — ^it is possible that the percentage
of employed has decreased since 1958 — it seems that the majority of
workers in Bordj arc still journeymen and earn well under five dirhams
a day. Because of the large number of veterans who receive pensions
from the French government, the situation in Sidi Baba is more com-
plex. Nevertheless, the majority of workers there are laborers who do
not work locally. This pattern also appears to hold for the other bidon-
villes.

The shantytowns are also tied to the madina commercially. Although

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106

THE ^AMADSHA

the larger ones have little vegetable and meat markets as well as grocery
shops, many of the inhabitants of the bidonviUes prefer to do their
marketing in the madina, where prices are lower. The bidonville mar-
kets, which maintain a very small inventory, are stocked each day, ex-
cept Wednesdays and Saturdays, from the madina markets themselves.
Wednesda3r5 and Saturdays are the days of the "wholesale market" just
outside the dty limit. The mark-up in the bidonville is consider^le.
There are a few small shops in the shantytown where one can buy
tobacco or mats or have clothes mended or shoes repaired; however, it
is impossible to buy most standard household goods in the bidonvilles.
At least one member of the average shantytown household — even those
in which no one works in the d^— viats the madina once a day. There
is a bus service from Bord) Mouby Omar, but from Sidi Baba it is
necessary either to walk, bicycle, or take a taxi.

Although the average bidonville inhabitant is tied to the madina eco-
nomically, he is not integrated into its sodal life. As a newcomer to
the dty, he has in most instances married a woman from his own
toiily or tribe. Second marriages— after divorce or death — are made
more often with other bidonville inhabitants in a similar situation.
Qiildren who have been bom and educated in Meknes are now begin-
ning to marry other inhabitants of the shantytowns, regardless of tribal
or family affiliation. Marriages between bidonville dwellers and mem-
bers of old madina ^milies are still rare. Marriage ceremonies are not
those of the dty but of die country. Patterns of friendship follow the
same lines as marriage. Tribal and occupational relation^ps are the
foremost determmant.

The **reIi^pous ties** with the madina are the most difficult to deter-
mine. Altfaou^ the larger bidonvilles have their own mosques— often
shacks with clapboard minarets — ^those men who pray regukrly prefer
to attend the madina mosques whenever they can, and especially on
Fridays. The\- seldom belong to any of the old-quarter zawiyas; if they
have an afiiliation with a brotherhood, it is with one in the bidonville.
Indeed, there is considerable hostility between urban and slum brother-
hoods. Saints' tombs in the madina, especially Sheikh al-Kamal, are
visited regularly by both men and women, although the majority of
bidonville inhabitants seem to have greater faith in Sidi 'Ali and Sidi
Ahmed. They visit and often invoke the saint of their countr}'sidc, by
whom they are frequently msannad. The square in front of Sheikh
al-Kamal is filled each Friday afternoon with inhabitants of the shanty-
towns who have come to attend the badra of the ^amadsha, the Mili-

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107

ana, the Jilala, and the ^sawa, or to listen to storytellers, musicians, holy
fools (fmjdubin)^ and the like.

The Shamtytown Teams

The Hamadsha of the shantytowns differ from those of the madina
zawiyas, as would be expected, in terms of their beliefs, their ceremonial
style, and their organization. They may be divided into two groups: the
team members and the muhibbin. The team members are professional
Hamadsha — they earn their living by performing the hadra — and appear
to be much more explicitly concerned with the jnun and with sickness
than the adepts of the madina, who are primarily concerned with the
saints. Their ceremonies are simpler — they do not recite litanies — and
more violent and spectacular. The public ones fall midway between
spectacle (fraja) and religious ceremony (krama, sadaqa). The private
ceremonies are primarily curing ceremonies and not homages to the
saints.

Not only are the performances designed — often crudely — to maxi-
mize profits, but the team members actively seek out muhibbin and
threaten them with illness if they do not sponsor a hadra. Usually these
threats are made in a joking, offhand way, but they leave their mark on
a group of people who are highly susceptible to such suggestions. The
bidonville Hamadsha are "exploiters," and they are seen as such not
onlv by the descendants of Sidi *Ali and Sidi Ahmed and the foqra of
the madina but also by their "victims," the muhibbin themselves, who
stoically accept their dependence as their fate. The devotees conceive
of their attraction to the Hamadsha as the will of 'Aisha Qandisha and
the other jnun, whose ways are neither to be questioned nor under-
stood. Like the team members, they are concerned primarily with the
jnun, who constantly interfere with their lives, and only secondarily
with the saints, wlio are seen as providing the means {baraka) for man-
aging the jnun. Baraka is not conceived in its more abstract quality as
plenitude, well-being, and completion, but in its more concrete sense
of material well-being, good health, and luck in ever^^day affairs. The
devotees perform the hadra to obtain something, and are not at all un-
willing to pay for it — even to men they recognize as charlatans, quacks,
whoremongers, and money-grubbers.

The seven teams are dedicated to either Sidi *Ali ben Hamdush or
Sidi Ahmed Dghughi. The allegiance of the members, however, may be
muted. The teams usually have seven members, although there is tech-

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THE HAMADSHA

nically no limit to membership or particular virtue in this number. In-
deed, the number seven is popularly considered unlucky. The teams are
not as strictly and as formally organized as the zawiyas, and on occa-
sion—especially during the public performances on Fridays and holi-
da3^s— two or more teams will combine. Often, too, individual mem-
bers of a team which is not performing on a given night will join the
t^dra of another team. They may receive a small gift for this, but their
unexpected anival is usually regarded as an intrusion and is resented.
There is consideiaMe friction between the different teams.

Each of the bidonviDe teams is headed by a muqaddim who, like the
muqaddim of a zawiya, receives a letter of charter from the mizwar
of die saint he follows and carries the saint's flag. He is charged with
the administratioa of the team, the scheduling and organization of cere-
monies, and the division of proceeds; he acts as a dance leader during
tlie badia and cares for the sick. The mizwar's control over the muqad-
dim of a bidonville team is not as great as his control over the head of
an urban zawiya. He does not choose, or even confirm, die election of
the muqaddim. Usually the muqaddim was a team member or an acdve
devotee who fdt that he had enough baraka to attract a following and
who conducted a few trial performances before presenting his case to
the mizwar. Often he replaces an old or deceased muqaddhn. The miz-
war grants the new muqaddim a letter unless there is active opposition
from other teams in the area.

Both mizwars hold the bidonville Qamadsha in some contempt, con-
sider them C3mically as a good source of income, and term their lettets
to them acts of charity graciously given to help a group of poor
wretches earn a living. The letter is die mizwar's only hold over the
muqaddim; the muqaddim must then present it to the municipal gov-
ernment, which grants the team permission to perform its hicrative
public performances.

The other members of the team are miisidaiis and dancers. There is
usually one snare drummer (tabhd)^ who is familiar with the words of
the various trance-indudng musical phrases (f#s), three gwal players,
and two ghiyyata who also play the recorder (ntra) and the guitar
(ganbri). Each muqaddim tries to have at least one 5^^/— descendant
of the Prophet— in his team, because a sharif, vfho is endowed with
baraka, attracts a following and will bring in more money. The sharif
may play an instrument; he usually aids the muqaddim in caring for
the sick.

There is no formal initiation: "The muqaddim notices that you are a
good mubibb and invites you when one of the regular team members is

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109

unable to make it. Or he may ask you to dance because he has seen that
you are a good dancer.'^ If the novice is young, he is left with all the
dirty work of the team— running errands, canymg the instruments,
and informing team members of a ceremony — and is the object of a
great deal of teasing. He may be required to shave his head, leaving
only a small pigtail The Hamadsha of Meknes do not have a single iiair
style, and the novice will usually let his hair grow long again.

The ghita players are considered part of the team, even though they
receive greater compensation than the other musicians and perform at
other ceremonies as well. They do not, however, play for more than
one bidonville Hamadsha team. The difference in status between the
ghita players of the zawiyas and those of the teams must be understood
in terms of the division of wealth. The foqra do not divide the proceeds
of a ceremony among themselves; theoretically, only the poorest of
them can expect to receive a part of the small portion of total proceeds
allotted to them. This allotment is referred to as ahns (sadaqa), or
baraka, or bread, a symbol for baraka, and is considered as an act of
charity. The team members, however, divide all of the proceeds among
themselves and do not normally consider their part alms.

The importance of the ghiyyata, who control the progress of the
ceremon\' by playing the appropriate rihs, often undermines the posi-
tion of the muqaddim, whose authority, aside from what personal
charisma and esoteric knowledge he may have, lies with his possession
of the mizwar's letter. The reams tend, therefore, ro be very fragile.
The members of the seven teams operative in the bidonvillcs of Meknes
in 1968 were constantly shifting their allegiance from one muqaddim
to another. Whatever stability there was resulted from the economic
success or failure of a particular team, Ghiyyata perform at marriages
and circumcisions; and during the period immediately following the
harvest, when the nhijority of marriages and circumcisions take place,
the Hamadsha seldom perform the hadra because they are unable to
find ghiyyata for the occasion. This is the period of the greatest tension

within the teams. They often break up, to be reintegrated later in the

year.

The position of the ghiyyata in the larger social setting must be dis-
tinguished from that of the other team members. They form an occu-
pational group and, as ghi\ yata, are treated witli respect. The majority
of them come from illiterate, peasant Gharbawi famihes which usually
included some Hamadsha. The fathers of the majority of them were
not ghiyyata. The musicians learned to play the ghita from a ?ffaJIem,
or master, in their home villages, who may have noticed their musical

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TH£ I^AMADSHA

ability and taken an interest in them, teaching them fiist to play the nira
and dien the ghita and ganbri. Most of them, much to their parents*
disapproval, then joined a troupe of wandering musicians (sheikhat) —
these travel from village to village, usually accompanied by a prostitute
or two, performing at name-day celebrations, circumcisions, marriages,
and other festivities — before coming to Meknes. Although many of the
ghiyyata were familiar with the music of the i^^iamadsha, as well as that
of the ^wa, the 'Jilala, and die Gnawa, th^ were seldom affiliated
with a team of Qamadsha before their arrival in the city. Usualty, they
joined one shordy afterward The team provides diem not only with
a means of earning a living but also with the chance to form contacts
with families who would later invite them to perform at family cde-
bradons. They regard themselves and are regarded by others as pro-
fessional musicians who are members of the guild of all ghiyyata, in-
cluding those not attached to any brotherhood. They are proud of their
profession.

The other team members do not form as homogeneous a group. Like
die ghita players, they are younger than the foqra of the madina and
have almost all been bom in the countryside, where they performed
the b^uira. Like many of the madina ](Jbmadsha, they began to dance
in their early teens. They too did not become team members until
coming to Meknes. The modve was usually financial The majority of
them come from areas in which the ^^amadsha were acdve, and many
of them report that other members of their families perform the badra.
It is not unusual to find families, especially among the head-slashers, in
which every member of the immediate family has performed the badra.
But it is also not unusual to find team members who report that no one
in their immediate or more distant families has danced. The majority
of the members I interviewed came from the Gharb or from the region
around Fez and Meknes; very few come from the Zerhoun. Most of
them are illiterate and, as they put it, have no other "occupadon** beside
the hadra. They will take odd jobs whenever they can and will work
the harvests, preferably around their old homes, lliose who work have
menial jobs— -selling doughnuts or candies or working as garbage col-
lectors or street cleaners — or make a litde money by preparing magical
amulets and formulae, predicting the future, or giving advice to the
jinn-possessed, the jinn-struck, or those suffering from the evil eye
or a magical curse. A few of them — ^they usually come from the Wukd
Khalifa in the Gharb — claim to be descendants of the Prophet and earn
some money reddng feitfaos, massaging aching limbs, or spitting into

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111

water which then, filled as it is with their baraka, is drunk by the ailing

client.

There is considerable ambivalence in the attitude of the average
bidonville inhabitant toward them. Although the shantytown dwellers
regard them with a certain awe and treat them, in face-to-face en-
counters, with respect, the team members are never as respected and as
admired as the ghiyyata (or the foqra of the zawiyas). In private, they
are often referred to quite disparagingly. Most of the bidonville dwell-
ers, including the team members themselves, do not want their children
to become team members or even muhibbin. There is little prestige
associated with their role, although within their own ranks there ap-
pears to be a hierarchy of prestige. Those who abandon themselves
most dramatically to excesses of sclf-mutilation and those who have
access to the jnun have the most prestige. They are all treated with
great condescension by the educated of the madina, and the foqra con-
sider them "worthless ^amadsha."

The Devotees

The vast majority of the bidonville Hamadsha are devotees {jnuhib-
b'm)\ and hke the devotees of the city, thev are difficult to trace so-
cially. They may be scaled with respect to intensity of involvement or
frequency of performance in the same manner as the madina devotees.
The most intensely involved — those who fit into the first 12 categories
of I'igure 2 — have the most prestige; they form networks which
are centered around a particular team member. Usually, this is a muqad-
dim or ghita player. He invites them whenever he gives a performance,
especially if the performance is near their homes. Often the members
of the network come from the same tribe or region as the muqaddim or
ghita player; however, one muqaddim, who had a very large following,
came from a region of Morocco which had produced very few immi-
grants to Mcknes.

Most significant is the fact that the devotees of the bidonvilles are

centered around particular team members whom they follow. The pat-
tern is in this respect different from that of the madina. The team mem-
bers, who are constantly sponsoring ceremonies themselves, play a
much more active role in inviting the mu]]ubbin to ceremonies thui the
foqra do. There is an incipient, albeit restricted, form of leadership.
Wcfc the teams themselves more sMU, one might expect to find a
rudimentary association of muhibbin around each team. This is not the
case. One leasoa for the more active lole of the team members in the

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THE HAMADSHA

invitations is economic. The more devotees present at a ceremony, the
more money the team can hope to coUect and use for its own devices.
I do not mean to imply that die f oqra are not sufficiently motivated to
maximize their profits, but simply that there is a greater degree of
urgency in earning money when one's very existence depends on it.
A bidonville ceremony is much more a business affair than a ceremony
inthemadina.

Some of the mubibbin of the bidonville teams do not live in the
shamytowns but in the madina itself and in the villages in the vicinity
of Meknes. Although devotees who live in the taa&UL are, like their
confreres in the shantytowns, usually newcomers to Meknes, there are
a few who come from more established funilies. Unlike the devotees
of the shantytowns, th^ usually have affiliations with one of the
^amadsha zawiyas of the old quarter; but, like Boualem, they require
the t^idra more often than the zawiyas perform. There is, in short, no
complete division between the mubibbin of the madina and those of
the bidonvilles. Although they tend to split into two groups along an
urbanr-bidonville (rural) axis, the split is not complete. They do share
their devotion to ilie saints and *A3isha Qandisha, and their performance
of thel^dra.

There are many more female mubibbin in the bidonvilles than there

are among the zawiya-affiliated devotees; and the women, who are not
as restricted as women in the old town, play a more active part in the
ceremonies. The wives of most; but not all, of the team members also
perform the b^dra; this cannot be said for the wives of the male de-
votees. One often finds a devotee whose wife not only is not a devotee
but disapproves of the ^amadsha altogether. Similarly, there are mu-
bibbin with husbands who are not only not devotees but who tolerate
their wives* performances with the usual superiority of an Arab male
toward an Arab woman, spouses of either sex, however, frequently re-
port becoming devotees after marrying a devotee.

The average male mubibb resembles the average bidonville inhab-
itant. He is lUiterate, an unskilled laborer of peasant background who
may or may not have full employment and who leaves the city to work
the harvests in the spring and summer. He is a newcomer to Meknes
and was bom in a pan of the countryside where the i^^Uunadsha were
active: the Gharb and the regions of Fez and Meknes are the most
common. I have found far fewer from the Zerhoun than I did in the
madi"a. This may be the result of continued contact bctvv cen the Zer-
houn population and Meknes, which has provided the Zrahna with
"better contact" in the madina. Like the mid?ibbin of the cities and the

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THE 8HANTYT0WN TEAMS

foqra and team members, the devotees of the shantytowns usually re-
port at least one other family member who perfonns the hadra. Like
the other ^amadsha, they usually started to perform the ^adra in their
teens after a sickness — ^most often paralysis — wliich was interpreted as
an attack by the jnun. From that time on they have felt the need to
dance, and they suffer from depression, general malaise, and pinching
bones if they do not dance for a prolonged period of time. Scunetimes
they become paralyzed again. Their first performance usually preceded
their arrival in Meknes^

Finances

The economic organization of the bidonville Hamadsha is different
from that of the zawiyas. Unlike the foqra, who "work" for their saint,
the team members of the bidonvilles work for themselves. Their public
and private ceremonies are always considered curing ceremonies, and
they do not recite litanies or attend name-day celebrations. Just after
each performance, they divide all the money and gifts — if there should
happen to be any — among themselves. Nothing is left for the saint.
During the weeks immediately preceding the muscm, however, a part
of the proceeds from each performance is put aside for the saint. Often,
at this time, the teams will go from house to house begging alms for
their saint. At the muscm, this money is given to the mizwar, who re-
news their letter of charter without saying a fatha over them. The
whole exchange is conducted like a business transaction with much
bargaining, complaining, and cursing, and it docs not have the sacro-
sanct quality of a zaw iya's presentation of proceeds to its mizwar. The
team members are simply renewing their contract.^

'During the musem of 1967, one team was not able to give the mizwar of Sidi
*Ali as much as was tfadr custom (125-150 didiams) because K., the mnmiddim,
feu sick shortly before the niusem, and his team was unable to peifocm ios sev-
eral months. The mizwar of Sidi ^Ali did not consider this to be an excuse and
threatened to withdraw his letter and inform his relatives in the municipal gov-
errnnent of liie change in K.*s team's status. When K. still lefosed to pay, dte
mizwar cursed him and called K.'s wife a pagan, a very strong insult. He did not
in fact \\ ithdrfl\v the letter, but sent his son to K.'s house several times during the
year to collect as much money as he could. K. tlircatcncd to switch allegiance to
Sidi Ahmed, but was urged not to **abandon his saint" by the odier team mendben.
K. ended up by giving the mizwar's son about 10 dirhams at each visit — 40 or 50
for the year. In 1968 K.'s team was more active and was able to collect enough
money (160 dirhams) to satisfy the mizwar. K. and the other team members do
not hesitate to curse the mizwar and his son — ^not the saint; and K. who is reputed
to have great knowledge of magic, claims to have made madk evil mag^ i^ainst
the mizwar, his son, and his brother.

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The
Circle of
Exchange

The three levels of (^amadsha organization considered in the last three
chapters are interrelated in a vmy that is typical of all levels of
madsha organization and that receives ritual expression during the an-
nual pUgrimage to Ben! Rachid and Beni Ouarad. They form an ex-
emplary complex, the analysis of which provides an understanding of
the "internal workings" of the organization as a whole and of its rela-
tion to the larger social scene. Only those aspects of the "external rela-
tions" of the tJamadsha bearing on the therapeutic process are con-
sidered here.

The Hamadsha organization under consideration may be sum-
marized as shown in Table 3.

The liamadsha are seen to fall into two structurally parallel organiza-
tions — ^the descendants and followers of Sidi 'All and the descendants
and followers of Sidi Ahmed — between which there are certain ritual-
ized ties. Both organizations are divided into two distinct levels: the
wulad nyyidy who form a bounded group with explicit rules of mem-
bership — agnatic descent from the ancestral saint — and the adepts
(foqra) and devotees {mu^bm) of the brotherhood, divided into a
series of teams whose organization varies from town to country. (The
bidonville teams tend to follow the organization of the countryside.)

Membership in the teams is achieved. There are no explicit rules for
recruitment. Each team is surrounded by a number of devotees, who
may be scaled with respect to the intensity of their involvement.
Acknowledgment of one*s devotion to the ^amadsha saints and to
their cult is the only criterion for being considered a mubibb. Al-

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115

TABLE 3

Sidi *Ali

Sidi Abmtd

Ztrlnum

WuladShyU
(Ta-fJ)

Zawiya
(foqra)
(ghiyyata)
mnhibbiii

Madina

Bidonvilh
Taifa

Zawiya
(foqra)
(ghiyyata)
muhibbiii

Madina

BidonvilU
Taifa

(team member}

(team member)

muhibbin

muliibbui

though the wious teams are distinct from one another, the devotees
are olten affiliated ixdth more than one group. Often, one finds a
mn^b who is connected not only to the zawiya of one saint but also
to one or more bidonville teams, and who does not hesitate to attend
the performances of the other zawiya.

llsA mizwar, who may be considered the direct rqiresentati^e of the
saint, is in complete charge not only of the descendants but of the
followers of his ancestral saint. He is the nodal point of the organi-
zation, and his importance to the organization is litnally reconfirmed
every year at the annual pilgrimage.

The Musem

Each year, on the sixth and seventh days after the Prophet's birth-
day, or nndttd, the component organizations of the Qamadb^ complex
come together for the nmsem at Beni Ouarad and Beni Rachid. Tens
of thousands of pilgrims — ^foqra, team members, muhibbin, as well as
the curious, the pious, and the bored^from all over Morocco gather
together to pay homage to Sidi ^Ali and Sidi Ahmed.^

On the days immedifltely preceding the musem, pilgrims arrive and
set up tents in the village of the saint to whom they fed closest.
Travding vendors, entertainers, hawkers, and pickpockets who make
the round of pilgrimages each year also arrive to ply their trade. Team
members setde down in groups and begin to perform the b^dra almost

1 1 estinute diat there were between 35,000 and 50,000 pflgrims at the museom in
1968. This was also the estimate of the chief of the Geodarmerie Royak at Moulay
Idnss. Schoen (1937:91) estimated 35,000 for the musem in 1935.

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THE 9AMADSHA

immediately on arrival. Their dancing continues intermittently for
three or four days, until the musem ends. The foqra of Meknes and
Fez, as well as the leaders of other important urban lodges, are given
special housing by their mizwar. It is at this time that the various taiifas
bring the year's proceeds to the mizwar and make the rounds of other
saint's descendants to whom they feel especially bound. A constant
stream of pilgrims visits the two saints' tombs, the baths at Beni Rachid,
and the shrines to ^Aisha Qandisha, leaving a few dirhams, a candle or
two, or some other gift at ever^- stop. (The mizwars usually giant
charge of the baths and the shrines as concessions to the highest bidders
in the villages a few days before the musem.) Nimierous chickens are
sacrificed along with the rams, he-goats, and bulls that are usually^
and traditionally — brought by the urban zawiyas.^ Each year one of
these z&ynyas brings a special cover for the catafalque and parades up
and down the road with it.

The musem of Sidi Ahmed takes place on the sixth day after the
Ftophet*s birthday. All morning and afternoon, teams from all over
Morocco dance their way-^ trance and oftm sJa^iing their heads —
down the narrow main street of Beni Ouaiad to the saint's tomb; and
there, in fxoat of the mausoleum, they dance even more violendy, some
of them dashing with a halbard {shaqria). The mizwar and the other
saint's descendants do not participate in this part of the pilgrimage;
they stay in their houses, entertaining important guests.

The mizwar of Sidi *AIi is invited to (Une with the mizwar of Sidi
Ahmed, if relations between the two permit this. (The musem is one
of the rare occaaons on in^ch the mizwar of Sidi *Ali will allow him^
self to be seen in Beni Ouarad.) Toward sundown, when all the teams
have paid a visit to the saint's tomb and all the pilgrims are anxiously
awaiting his appearance, the mizwar leaves his house, mounts a white
stallion,* and parades down the main street of Beni Ouarad to the tomb
of Sidi Mejma* at the opposite end of town.* Bread and spoonfuls of
couscous — both said to contain baraka — are given to the pOgrims just
before his appearance. He pays homage to Sidi Mejma' by circum-
ambulating the tomb and then returns to his ancestor's mausoleum,

"For the musem of 19^8 the mizwar of Sidi Ahmed required 4 cows, 20 sheep,
between 300 and 4U0 chickens, 200 kilograms of honey, 100 kilograms of butter,
800 kUo^ams of ocniscoiis, aiid over a ton of floor. I have no figures for tea,
su^, coffee, and mint. It is said that die mizwar does not collect enough during
the musem to pay for all this.

' It is explained that 'Ali, the Prophet's son-in-law, rode a white stallion.

* I know of no Iqpaids about Sdi M^nu5 or his relationship to Sidi Ahmed.

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117

which he is supposed to visit but is seldom able to reach because of the
crowds. He is followed by various teams of Dghughiyyin, who per-
form the hadra in tight separate circles (halqat). The foqra of Fez,
whose muqaddim is related to the mizwar by marriage, follow im-
mediately behind him. The foqra of Meknes end the procession, ac-
companied by two or three men on horseback playii^ a long brass
(or copper) horn called a nafa\^

On the seventh day after the Prophet's birthday, much the same
sequence of events is repeated at Bcni Rachid. The mizwar of Sidi
Ahmed is asked to lunch, but then he returns to his village, mounts his
stallion, and rides back down to Beni Rachid, followed by thousands
of pilgrims. The Dghughiyyin perform the b^dra. Traditionally, the
mizwar followed a path through the olive groves between the two
viUages and stopped at the two palm trees, to the north of Beni Rachid,
to be greeted by the mizwar — also on horseback — of Sidi *A1L The
mizwar of Sidi Ahmed would then dismount and, on foot, follow the
other mizwar— sdll on horseback— to Sidi 'Ali's tomb and back.® In
recent years, however, the mizwar of Sidi Ahmed has refused to follow
the traditional path, preferring the taned Zerhoun road. He no longer
enters the village. Instead he stops just short of the palm trees, waits
for the mizwar of Sidi 'Ali, greets him perfonctorily, and immediately
rides back to his own village. The mizwar of Sidi 'Ali returns to his
house without visiting his ancestor's tomb. Thousands of tired pilgrims
who have looked forward to this meeting for several days now pack up
thdr belongings and prepare to leave that night or the following
morning.

The musem, which is part of a complex cycle of pilgrimages to
various saints* tombs in northern Morocco, is an amorphous affair with
many different functions. It may be said to consoUdate the various
components of the Hamadsha complex by reaffirming their position
wnrhin the Hamadsha scheme of things and bv justifying the exchange
of wealth and baraka which takes place both at this time and through-
out the year. Traditionally, it reconfirmed the relative status of Sidi
'Ali and Sidi Ahmed and their children and followeis. Today, it pro-

" The nafa* is rarely used at ^amadsha ceremonies. I once saw it played by the
Dghughiyyin at a circumctsioa cerenumy for tfadr mizwar's son. It is often
played at circumcisions.

* The desoendents of Sidi *A]i insisc that this is as it should be. The leader of
the descendants and followers of Sidi ^AlTs Islave** should follow Sidi ^Alfs most
important descendant afoot

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THE HAMADSHA

vides a vehicle for the expression of tensions that exist between the two
economically vying groups. The mizwar's position, as representative of
his ancestor and as leader both of his lineage and of the brotherhood
devoted to his saintly ancestor, is reaffirmed symbolically — ^rein-
forced behaviorally, one might say, given the heightened suggestibility
of the exhausted and often entranced pilgrims. His hospitality, which
is symbolized by the distributing of spoonfuls of couscous and hand-
fds of bread horn his kitchen, demonstrates to the pilgrims a mag-
nanimity and generosity commensurate with a vast endowment of
baraka.

Baraka and the Exchange of Wealth

It must be remembered that bread is also a symbol of baraka, and
baraka is one element in the ideal exchange system that imites the
various levels of I^amadsha organization. The mubibbin (and general
population) give money and gifts — ^wealth — to the adepts of the order
and to the saint— by extension, to his children. In return for their gifts,
the donors obtain baraka. The adepts who have worked for the saint
give what they have collected to the saint — ^via the mizwar. In return,
they receive baraka. The mizwar, as representative of the saint and his
descendants, distributes the wealth he has received from the adepts and
from the mubibbin directly to the children of the saint (including him-
self), who are considered to be poor.^

It is incumbent upon the mizwar and the children of the saint to
provide for individual pilgrims to the shrine and for pflgrims at the
annual musem. The system of exchange is, then, a system of redistribu-
tion of wealth through a series of transfer agents from the muJ^lnn
who have wealth to those who do not, the poor and ailing who visit the
shrine. This redistribudve system is schematically represented in Figure
5. The thin lines indicate the direction of flow of wealth and the thick
ones that of baraka.

The fact that the wulad siyyid and the foqra are considered to be
^or—'foqra is derived from the Arabic for poor— enables them to reap
some of tiie benefits of the alms they receive. This is not considered a
salary, or even as their due. The gif» are received as a blessing and are
called baraka. It is noteworthy that the gifts to the '*poor foqra'* are
given before the proceeds of any one night are counted, and that the

* Cootiast GeUner 1969:74 et seq.

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119

PILGRIMS
(POOR AND AILING)

t \

WULAO SAYYIO

GENERAL POPULATION

FIGURE 5.

mizwar gives a gift to the three witnesses who accompany the
muqaddun and other officials of the zawiya to his house with the year's
proceeds before he counts them. He says a fatba for the witnesses but
not for the muqaddim, the treasurer, and other officials. His gift is re-
ferred to as baraka, or bread.

A detailed examination of the "logic" of baraka^ is necessary for an
understanding of this S3^em of exchange. Baraka, as Geertz has
pointed out, may be an attribute of an individual or may reside in an
object. Westermarck and others have looked to the object itself for
reasons which qualify it as endowed with baraka. They have £uled,
however, to consider the object as symbolic of a group or of some
social or psychological process. It is indeed possible, and even likely,
that the extraordinary quality of the object renders it a fit receptade

'Here I refer to barabi widim the ^amadsha c«nitezc only. The tenn is widely
used in Morocco for many different diii^ all of which ace related in diffedng
degiees to Geertz' glofls.

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THE HAMAD8HA

for baraka, but this does not necessarily enhance our understanding of
the logic of bataka and its relation to social and psychological proces-
ses. These objects— sand, water, henna, and the ]^e— which the l^am-
adsha believe to contain baraka are in fact extensions of the bataka of
the saint. They possess no unique or extraordinary quality in them-
selves, and need not concern us here.

As an attribute of human beings, baraka may be either institurional-
ized or personal The former is passed agnatically; the latter is a
personal endowment which is not heritable, though it may be con-
tagious. Among the ^amadsfaa, the descendants of the saints are en-
dowed with institutionalized baraka. They are bom with it and defined
by it. In this sense, baraka is symbolic of the agnatic principle of
descent— the rules of group membership. It does not reflect any partic-
ular quality in the saint's descendants, nor does it provide them widi
good fortune, good health, or any of the other more or less concrete
benefits associated with baraka. It is contagious.

The baraka of the foqra and team members is personal. Here we
must be careful to distinguish between the baraka an adept obtuns
from the saint in the same manner as a pilgrim^-baraka which is trans-
bted Into some concrete potential or actual state of being— and the
baraka he possesses as a follower of the saint. The latter he ouinot
obtain by his own devices. It is descended from God via the saint. It
is contagious. Possession of it may be said to define the group. In this
case, working for the saint— ^>erforming the b^dra-HS the principle of
mnnbership.

Baraka is always ascribed to someone or something other than self.
It is always possible to refer to someone or something as endowed
with baraka, but it is impossible to refer to oneself as possessed of
baraka. A man who is endowed with institutionalized baraka might
make such a statement, but this would be considered gross immodesty
and almost never happens. A man who is endowed with personal baraka
is equally incapable of making such a claim. In fact, were he to state
that he possessed baraka, his endowment might well vanish.

Baraka is also contagious. It may be passed from an endowed object
or person to a supplicant by a number of ritual practices. The moment
the baraka has passed to the supplicant — except in extraordinary cir-
cumstances like Sidi 'Ali*s ingestion of Bu%bid Sharqi*s vomit— it is
no longer contagious. It ceases to be itself. The individual to whom
the bataka has been passed obtains something-^e state or potential
state of good health, good fortune, business success, or fertility. A

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TH£ CIRCLE OF EXCHANGE

121

txansfomiation analogous to the conversion of energy into matter, of
semen into infant,^ has occnned. Baiaka is thus a potentializing force
which in the process of transference is actualized into that which is
sought. It should be noted that the specific desire for the baraka must
precede its transfer. It is impossible under normal drcumscanoes to
hoard it and then decide upon its use.

In the Hamadsha scheme, baraka is passed firom the saint — the in-
exhaustible source of baraka — through a series of transfer agents: the
wulad siyyid, who are extensions of the saint himself and who have
received their endowment biologically (through the semen of their
ancestor), and the foqra, whose endowment is weaker than that of the
saints* descendants, and must be contmoally renewed through work.
The saint, his descendants, his followers, and the ritual paraphernalia
associated with him, all possess baraka which is passed to those who
do not possess it in exshmgt for wealth. The passage of baraka mir-
rors— and, in a sense, potentializes — ^the passage of wealth in a redis-
tribudve system which serves ideally to care for the poor and ailing
and is congruent with a fundament^ tenet of Islam: charity. It is seen
to reside in precisely those ideologically selfless individuals, living in
self-imposed poverty, who act as transfer agents in the ledistributive
system.

The ideal exchange of baraka and wealth is not, however, consistent
with what I was told, or with what I observed.^** What I observed is
this: The nuhibbin were the donors of wealth and the recipients of
nontransferable baraka. They would either give directly to the saint
or to the adepts of the order. They would Always speak of receiving
baraka from die saint if they left something at his tomb. They usually
referred to receiving baraka when they gave to the adepts of the
madina; when they gave something to the bidonville ^^amadsha, they
were generally more concrete in their demands and, or so it seemed
to me, less likely to refer to baraka. The exception was when the
adepts of the bidonville were in trance. Then they would refer to

baraka. While many of the devotees referred to the baraka of the
foqra, they seldom referred to the baraka of the team members. The

' The passage of baraka is in many ways analogous tx> the sexual act.

>>The difference betwem what all tfanumM toB^ecxed to happen ideally and
what in fact happened — that is, between the nonnatiye statement of the exchange
system and a realistic one — created a dissonant situation to which the Hamadsha
reacted, as we shall see, in accord with their vested interests and their structural
position widitn the gamadsha complex. The ciplanarion offeied in die text li
indebied to Fesdngei's (1956) dieocy of cog ui dve disMHiance.

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THE 9AMADSHA

fbqia kept no money except the little that they divided among their
poorest members; actually, each of them received a small share. These
allotments were called bread, or baraka. In fact, the majority of the
proceeds were given to the mizwar.

The team members, on the other hand, kept the majority of pro-
ceeds and gave the mianrar the bare minimum necessary for die preser-
vation of their team. The mizwais— and here I am simplifying— kept
for themselves as much of the weakh from bodi the saint's tomb and
the brocfaerhoods as they could. What wealth they distributed to the
other woiad siyyid fell into the hands of the most powerful and influ-
ential. Neither the mizwar or the other saints' descendants cared for
the pilgrims to the tomb except on rare occasions when the pilgrims
were influentiaL The leaders of the saintly lineages were usually care-
ful to entertain important foqra who visited dieir ancestor's tomb.
Both the mizwars and other saints* descendants made an exaggerated

PILGRIMS
(POOR AND AILING)

WULAD SAYYID

i t

SAINT
(MIZWAR)

ZAWIYA TAIFA
(FOQRA) (TEAM MEMBERS),

MUHIBBIN

GENERAL POPULATION

FIGURE 6.

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The muqaddim of a Hamadsha team.

The mausoleum of Sidi 'Ali ben Hamdush in Beni Rachid. The tomb is located under
the cupola; the wing, to the right, contains cubicles for pilgrims wishing to spend
the night.

Pilgrims entering the mausoleum of Sidi Ahmed Dghughi in Beni Ouarad. The tents
l>elong to pilgrims.

The musem at Beni Rachid in 1968. The
two palm trees are those at which the miz-
wars of the saintly lineages meet. The
mizwar of Sidi *Ali entertains guests in
the black tent. The mosque of Beni Jen-
nad, a neighboring town, is in the back-
ground.

Circles of dancing pilgrims following the
mizwar of Sidi Ahmed, hidden by flags,
as he makes his way to the tomb of Sidi
Mejma'. Musem, 1968.

Pilgrims at the 'Ayn Kabir in Bcni Rachid during the musem of 1968. The stairs
lead down to the bathhouse, where women bathe in the holy waters .

The hadra at Beni Ouarad. The man in the center of the circle has heard his rih and is
about to enter jidba. Note the clay drums {gwals).

The Hamadsha hadra before the mausoleum of Sheikh al-Kamal in Meknes. Note the
long ghiia in the upper lefthand corner of the crowd.

Dghughiyyin of the madina of Meknes recite the dikr.

The zawiya of the Dghughiyyin in Meknes. Note the fig tree, to which bits of cloth have
been tied as promises of a sacrifice {'ar) to either Sldi Ahmed or 'Aisha Qandisha. The
floor of the zawiya is covered with tombstones.

A performance of the hadra by a bidonville
team. The man with his head exposed is
slashing it with a barely visible knife in his
right hand. Note the varying responses of
the audience. Note too the snare drum.

A blow-up of the head-slasher.

laterial

The "line" at the performance on the previous page. The men are in hal. The woman in
the striped jallaba has joined the line "to come down."

Country Hamadsha performing the hadra in Meknes. The woman with flying curls is in
jidba. The boy in the foreground hits his head with a shoe in imitation of a head-slasher.

laterial

THE CIRCLE OF EXCHAK6E 123

display of their ho^ty diumg die musem, but although th^ did
distribote bread and couscous and fed the unportant f oqia, they acdH
ally entertained only in^rtant visitois.

The exchanges may be represented in Figure 6. Once again the thin
lines indicate die diiecdon of flow of iveakh, and the thidc ones that
of baraka. Double bars represent an interruption in the flow. As can
readily be seen, the redistributive 53^51601 is interrupted by the mizwar
and the team membersi resoltiog in their accumulation of weahh. Al-
though tiiere m^ be a corresponding jdaying down of die team mem-
ber's baraka, baraka from the saint and his descendants is still dis-
tributed.

Indted, it is precisely the conceptualization of the saint— and, by
extension, the mizwar and other children of the samt— as a continual
and inexhaustible source of baraka which enables die mizwar and the
most influential of die saint's descendants to exploit the system for
their own ends. The social and concomitant ritual organizatimi sup-
ports their institutional endowment of baraka. It provides the mizwar
with sufficient role distance to prevent his own personality, his selfish
motives, and his prosaic character from interfering with his status as
mizwar and his image as a selfless individual, highly endowed with
baraka, who lives up to the highest ethical standards of Ishon. More-
over, the mizwar reconfirms his status during the musem not only by
riding through the crowd of pilgrims but also by taking advantage of
a dramatic opportunity to demonstrate his hospitality.

The extent to which the mizwar is able to admit to the fact that he
does not live up to the standards ideally expected of him is impossible
to ascertain. It was my impression, however, that both mizwars were
unable to accept fully the contradiction between their actual behavior
and the behavior id^liy expected of them. It has to be remembered
that they themselves are members of the culture, subject to its values
and standardized fears, and hold their ancestor in awe. This, I think,
accouiits in part for their exaggerated show of hospitality during the
musem — a display which functioned for them as well as for the other
pilgrims as a reconfirmation of the fact that they were living up to
the ideal standards of mizwar behavior.

Structurally insulated and ideologically supported by the widespread
faith in their ancestors* baraka, the mizwars were able to maintain their
economically advantageous position without losing, at any rate outside
their descent group, the image of pious and charitable men endowed
with great baraka of their own. Within their own lineages, however,
their images were far from pure. The wulad siyyid were well aware

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124

TH£ HAMADSHA

of the mizwars* duplidr^, but, as interested parties— eligible, theoreti-
caUy, at least, for a share in the proceeds — they were not so anzioiis to
cast aspersion on the mizwars' image, and preferred to vie one with
another for their favor.

Outside the saintly descent gzoap, there was, however, comparativdy
little acknowledgment of die mizwars^ faibre to live up to the obliga-
tions of their role. The few team members who knew the facts were
able to accept them quite readily. In fact, this became a good excuse
for them not to give to their mizvrars. The foqra who knew were much
more reticent in admittii^ it. Even allowing for the image of their
organization they wanted to communicate, their fear of their mizwar,
and other consideradons, there was resistance on their part to the realis-
tic acceptance of the situation. Perhaps, were they to have accepted
fully the mizwars* failure to distribute the proceeds according to cus-
tom, their belief in the system would have been shattered by the dis-
sonant situation thus created, and they would have been unable to
justify pouring their eammgs into the mizwars* hands. They chose,
instead, to accept the ideal rather than the real

Beyond the positive injunction to give to the saint because one has
received baraka from him, there are, as we have seen, certain negative
consequences associated with the failure to give to him: business losses,
paral3rsis, disease, and general misfortune. Here, the f oqra*s belief was
also threatened by the bidonville teams, which did not give to the saint
as they should have and suffered no such dire consequences. The teams
made no secret of their refusal to give all they could to the saints, but
they were not in the same structunilly advantageous position of insula-
tion as their mizwars. The foqra argued that the bidonville team mem-
bers were not true I^amadsha and that their failure to give to the saint
accounted for their abject poverty. A few insisted that the team mem-
bers were insane (jmigm). This, again, is a typical reaction to a dis-
sonant situation.

Only partially successful in resolving it, the foqra expressed a great
deal of resentment toward the team members and refuised to identify
with them. The team members, who preferred their own economically
advantageous status, had no desire to join the foqra. The mizwars, cal-
lously manipulating the team members for what they were worth,
encouraged the foqra's resentment and discouraged any liaison between
the two groups. The situation was, in part, responsible for the con-
tinuing split between the foqra of the madina and the team members of
the bidonville.

The mubibbin, on the whole, were less interested in the intrigues

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THE GIllGLE OP EXCHANGE 125

ivitfaln the l^Jamadsha oiganizadon than in the efficacy of the perfoim^
ances. (One could also add, the dramatic quality.) They would often
critiQize both the team membeia and the mizwars, but in critical sitaa^
tions they would always accept the baiaka of die mizwar and the )}$dtA
of the team meoibeis. Often, they believed that *AIsha Qandtsfaa or an-
other jinn had caused their 'Wtiating^ illness because they had scoffed
at the Qamadsha.

Although the mubibbin were not as partisan as the adepts or the
team members, they tended to affiliate themselves with either the lodges
of the madina or the teams of the shantytowns. The madina devotees,
whose families had lived in the city for a few generations and who did
not need to perform the badra very often, would have nothii^ to do
with I the diantj^town teams. They found their perfoimances crasSi
spectacular, and not particularly pious. They accepted die prejudices
of the ftiqra. The bi^mville devotees, as well as the newcomers to the
madina, preferred the teams. They explained that the foqra did not
ptffoinn often enough, that they did not know the songs (rihs) of the
country, and that they chanted too long and danced too diort a dme.
Some added that the foqra were not pardculady ftiendly. By this, they
meant that while the foqra treated them hospitably during a ceremony,
the same foqra tended to ignore them on other occasions. The bidon-
ville dwellers and the newcomers to the dty seem to have expected
more from their affiliation with the Hamadsha than the townspeople
did.

The Organization of Devotees

There is also a agnificant difference between the oiganizadon of the
madina devotees and that of the bidonville devotees. Team members in
the bidonvilles play a much more acdve role in inidadng ceremonies
either direcdy or indirectly (through warnings to mubibtun said in a
joking manner), and in determining the composition of ceremonies,
than do the foqra. In die bidonvilles, dusters, determined by die fre-
quency of invitations to one another's ceremonies, tend to be focused
on a I member of one of the teams—usually the mnqaddim or ghita
player. He is, then, the core, or essential member of the duster (cf.
Barnes 1968: 118). It is around him that much of the duster's acdvides
takes place. In fact, each muqaddim or ghita player is the essential
member of a number of dusters which are differentiated primarily by
location. In the madina, dusters tend not to focus on an adept of a
zawiya or any other single individual The foqra are invited to perform.

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126

THE 9AMADSHA

but they do not usually sponsor or invite other devotees to ceremonies
in which they participate. The difference may be represented schemati-
cally, as shovm in Figure 7. The center of each star is either the team
or zawi3ra or a member of either organization. The points of the star
represent devotees who sponsor ceremonies from time to time. The
arrows indicate the direction of invitations (cf. Barnes 19<S8:113).

This difference in organization can be explained in part in teims of
the greater economic scdce the team members have in their perform-
ances. Since they are economically dependent on the b^ulra, it is to
thdr advantage to maximize their incomes by sponsoring ceremonies
and by making sure that as many devotees as possible attend each of
their performances.

A comparison of the two mubibbin groups suggests another, latent
function for this organizational difference. The devotees of the madina
are, in &ct, integrated into urban life. They have usually lived in the
dty all thdr lives, as did their parents and often their grandparents.
They have professions, feunily, friends, neighbors of long standing, and
other more or less permanent relationships. These relations tend to be
q)ecific, for spediic ends. They are, as Max Gluckman puts it, single-
stranded. The people of the bidonville are not integrated into urban
life— they are in fact quite outside it— and they are not yet part of an
established shantytown community. The shantytowns are too recent a
phenomenon to provide their inhabitants with complete social net-
works. The avmge bidonville dweller and his family came from the
countryside without a profession that was in demand and without
family, friends, or other contacts in the city. He often settled into a
neighborhood in which he had no contacts and looked for work wher-

MADINA SHANTYTOWN

FIGURE 7.

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ever he could find it. The single thing he had in common vnxh other
people |in his bidonviDe was devotion to the gamadsha. It is not imnsoal
to fin^ that many of the shaniytown devotees were actually inactive
as IJamadsha before coming to the dty. Although their sudden recom-
mitment can be explained away on psychological ground»-4ncreased
tensions and pressures, feelings of isolation, jbneUness, and unwordii-
nes5--i(he facts suggest that die status of devotee provided the new-
comer with a means of enlarging his social network.

While the devotees of the madina depend upon their own contacts
for inviting and being invited to the ceremonies, those of the shanty-
towns depend less on their own personal contacts than on the contacts
of the iteam members for their ceremonial attendance. The team mem-
bers, who are professional Qamadsha, have a wide range of these con-
tacts and serve^ if yon will, as mixers. They provide the devotee with a
large number of contacts with whom he will develop reciprocal rela-
tions — mutual invitations and the like — ^not only within the Hamadsha
frame of reference but also within the broader social setting. Again and
again, analysis of the life histories of the bidonville Hamadsha reveals
that their most significant contacts ourside family and kin within the
city of Meknes were other ^Jfamadsha. The links between the devotees
of the bidonville are not as single-stranded as those of the madina.
They tend to be multiplex. They satisfy many more needs of the new-
comers, who come from the country where multiplex links are pre-
dominant, than do the single-stranded links of the madina dweller.

The reluctance of the l^donville devotees to affiliate themselves with
the madina zawiyas is, moreover, a reflection of the breach between
city and country— dty and bidonville— discussed in the last chapter.
Certainly there are ritual differences between the two muhibbin groups,
but the rituals themselves are not rigid and could easily be modified.
Rather, the concern for ritual differences seems to symbolize the dif-
ference between madina and bidonville inhabitants which the bidon-
ville dweller senses. He prefers the bidonville teams because their dev-
otees arc verv much in the same position as himself. Often, too, the
teams' performances arc near his own home and provide him with
regular occasions to perform the hadra. Even newcomers to Meknes
who have settled in the madina and attend zawiya performances prefer
ormances in the bidonvillcs and go to them whenever thev can.
The foqra, who consider themselves city people, have never been
anxious to develop a large following of bidonville muhibbin, despite
the obvious increase in income these devotees would bring. Whether
this reflects a fear of economic takeover or the desire not to be identi-
fied with the newcomers cannot be detennined. The foqra themselves.

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THE HAMADSHA

it has to be remembered, are comparative newcomers to the city too.
One point is obvious — the majority of foqra are elderly, and they can-
not, physically, perform the l^dra as often as a large following would
lequiie. With such a large following, the foqra would see their posttloii
gradually usurped by the bidonville teams. The team members would
not only pose a threat to the foqia's status widiin the organizadon; but,
as we have seen, they would affect the very basis of their belief and
practice.

Part Three

Copyriyluoo iiiaiurial

The following chapters are concerned with Hamadsha therapy. I have
chosen to present my material within a framework that will be familiar
to readers of Western medical and psychiatric literature, because such
a framework provides both a means of describing the Hamadsh i svstem
of therapy with minimum distortion and a suitable vehicle for compari-
son with both \\''cstcrn medical and psychiatric theories and those of
other societies. It has to be rcmcnihcred, however, that this presentation
is not the Hamadsha's, nor would the Hamadsha feel altogether com-
fortable with it. As participants in a system which they have found to
be more or less successful therapeutically, they have not felt the need
to organize their beliefs and practices into a consistent whole. Were
they to attempt it, they undoubtedly would not delimit their "thera-
peutic system" in tlie same wnv T have done. Their axis of orientation
would be quite different. It would probably emphasize many more ele-
ments of what the Westerner would call religion or folk theology.

The Hamadsha system of therapy is not an isolated, secular system
of beliefs and practices; it is embedded in and indivisible from the entire
culture of the Moroccan Arab. The hncs between secular and sacred
have not been drawn, and Moroccan culture has not experienced the
fragmentation resulting from specialization and overspecialization that
Western culture has undergone. Throughout my presentation I have
had to bring in data from other areas of Moroccan cultural life. The
Hamadsha's therapy, like all therapies, is a legitimating apparatus — "the
application of conceptual machinery to ensure that actual and potential
deviants stay within the institutionalized definitions of reality" (Berger
and Luckmann 1967:112-113) — and their psycholog)% like all psychol-
ogies, presupposes a cosmology (Berger and Luckmami 1967:175).
I

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The
Theory of
Therapy

Hamadsha thcrnpv is but one of many therapies within the Moroccan
world, a point which has to be emphasized. Although in the Western
world there are a number of quasi-legitimate therapies (fringe medi-
cine) such as chiropractic and osteopathy, there is only one standard
system of therapy — medical therapy — which has received the "charter"
of the society. When a Westerner is sick, he will almost invariably have
recourse to some product or some practioner within the medical field.
The doctor of medicine, particularly the specialist, is the final authority.

In Morocco, there is no single, socially chartered therapeutic system
with final authority. There are the fuqaha, or Koranic teachers, who
specialize in writing amulets and talismans; the herbalists, who may be
either Arab, Berber, or Jewish; the spcciahst in traditional Arab medi-
cine; the barber, who, among other things, lets blood; the aguza, an
old woman who is familiar with many herbal and magical brews and
practices and who may be a midwife; her male counterpart; the exor-
cist, who may be a Koranic teacher or an adept of a brotherhood; the
brotherhoods themselves — Gnawiyya, 'Isawiyya, Rahaliv>''a, Hamdu-
shiyya, Jilaliyya, and the like; and Western medical practitioners. Even
the Western medical practitioners are not popularly organized into a
hierarchy of authority, and the Moroccan's decision to go to one rather
than another is as significant as his decision to go to an herbalist rather
than a Koranic teacher. There is, then, the choice of going to a French
or Spanish doctor, to a Moroccan doctor w^ho has studied Western
medicine, to a pharmacist, to a male nurse who conducts a medical
practice on the sly, to a European missionary, or to a local infirmarv

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THE tlAMADSHA

or hospital. The Moroccan may also visit any number of saints' tombs
or sacred grottos, springs, pits, trees, or baths.

Although symptomatology phys a definite role in the choice of ther-
apy, it is not the only consideration, especially since several different
types of dierapy are usually believed to be efficacious for the same
complamt. Other factors are of equal, if not greater, importance. These
include notions of what has caused the iUness, the availability of the
specialist^ the cost of therapy,^ the nature of the relations the patient
or his family has with various practitioners, the past experiences of the
patient and his family with various cures, the urgings of friends and
neighbors, the advice of diviners and seers, the current popularity of a
particular practitioner or type of therapy, the strength of belief in a
particular saint, shrine, or brotherhood, and the seriousness and urgency
of the complaint. The wide range of options leaves considerable room
for unconscious as well as conscious factors in the choice of cure.

The Moroccans do not make the same distinction between physical
and mental illness that the Westerner does. Just as they have many dif-
ferent forms of therapy, so they have many theories of causation. Their
"pathologies" are often self-contradictory. They appear to be an amal-
gamation of various folk beliefs and popularizations of traditional Arab
and modem Western medicine. Since theories of cftusatioii vary from
tribe to tribe, city to city, and family to family, it is impossible to form
a systematic Moroccan pathology. Still, although a supernatural de-
ment will enter dther directiy or indirecdy into the Moroccan's ex-
planation of any disease, it is possible to divide Moroccan theories of
causation roughly into two categories: naturalistic and pretematuralistic
explanations.

The naturalistic explanations are usually mechanistic Syphilis is said
to be caused by menstrual fluid. Gonorrhea is said to be caused by
semen backing up into the kidneys, if a man is not careful to urinate
after making love. Tuberculosis is caused by, among other things, not
wearing a shirt in the heat, especially when riding a bicycle. Certain
heart diseases are said to be caused by eating salt. Poisoning by one's
enemies is a frequent explanation for wasting diseases.

Preternatural explanations can be divided into those involving the
jnun and those that do not. The latter include nu^cal poisonings, magi-

* Pilgrimages to saints' tombs and other traditional therapeutic practices are
often chosen over Western therapies because of cost. This is not just true of
Morocco but d odier coantries in Mofth Africa aod die Middle East (cf . Howdl
1970).

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cal curses, witchcraft, and the evil eye. The fonner have to do with
being struck or possessed by a jinn.

It is for illnesses caused by the jnun that the Hamadsha are called,
and it is with these that we will be primarily concerned. It should be
remembered, though, that the cults to Sidi ^Ali and Sidi Ahmed have a
broader range of efficacy. Although visits to the tombs of the Hamad-
sha saints are considered particularly helpful for illnesses caused by the
jnun, these visits are also held to be beneficial in curing illnesses for
which the jnun are not responsible. The pilgrim to the tombs obtains
the baraka of the saints and somehow always benefits thereby, even if
he is not entirely cured of his complaint.

I wish to emphasize, too, that illnesses caused by the jnun are not the
sole province of the Hamadsha. Throughout Morocco, the fuqaha are
considered to have special control over the jnun. They provide men,
women, and children with talismans to protect them from the jnun,
and are often called in to exorcize devils who have taken possession of
a person. The members of the other fraternities— most notably the
Gnawa, from whom the Hiimndsha have borrowed heavily — also spe-
cialize in the cure of the jinn-struck and the jinn-possessed. The deter-
mination of which particular cure to undertake varies from case to case.
Often, the patient will tr>^ one cure after another until he happens upon
the one that "satisfies the jinn" — that is, the one that o&eis him relief.
I

The Theory of Pathology: The Jnun

The term pm?i, the Moroccan Arabic plural of jw??, \\ hich is itself
a plural in Classical and many dialects of Arabic, has both a general and
a specific meaning. Generalh-, it refers to a wide variety of poorly dif-
ferentiated "spirits" which are believed to inhabit the universe, but
which are distinct from the ordinary beings of everyday life. These
spirits are of a different ontological status from tlie objects of the phe-
nomenal world. The exact nature of this difference is not clear. Their
existence is attested to in the Koran, where it is written that God
created man "of clay like the potter's" and the jinn "of smokeless fire"
(LV, 13-14). The Westerner would classify them as supernatural or
elemental spirits.

There are many terms for jnun in Moroccan Arabic. Some of them
refer to specific classes of jnun — '^afarit, ^fnual, and shayatin — while
others, as Wcstcrmarck has noted, are the result of fear of mentioning
them by their proper name. "To pronounce their name would be to

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THE 9AMADSHA

simunon them** (Westermarck 1926(1): 263). I have heard them re-
fened to as nduk (the (diual of nuStky long), musekmn (Mnduiis),
mmsdlm Uard (the masters of the earth), tmnjoaUn Umakm (the mas-
ters of the place), rjal d-hlad (the men of the countiy, a term that is
used most often for saints), and trnhmnin. The term t-aryaJp, which is
the plural of rih (wind, or, in the case of the l^amadsha, the particular
tranoe-indudng musical phrase of a person), is very commonly used.
Westeimarck (1926(1): 263) found that its usage was restricted to
disease-causmg jnun. Most often, however, references to the jnun are
oblique: ''those people there,'* "those people who are below the
ground," **those people who are below the river," "those who shun
salt,** or **those who are hidden or invisible.** French-speaking Moroc-
cans refer to the jnun as les dkbles or Us invisibles*

Not only are the lines of distinction between the various classes of
jnun unclear, but the jnun themselves are often confused with other
spiritual beings such as angels {mMka) and Satan {Sbkm^ ibUs), as
well as with the saints themselves. Several of my informants confused
the jnun with the two angels which are believed to live on a person's
right and left shoulders and to count, respectively, their good and bad
activities. Saints, angels, and jnun are ofKn lumped together, as when
the expression rjal ^bUtd, which commonly refers to saints, is used for
the jnun, too, especially for those which I caU named-jnun. Wester-
marck (1926 (I): 389) has noted this confusion between saints and jnun.
He writes:

Saints mle over jmm and have Muhanunadan jnun as their assistants: and
Muhi *Abdelqader [Jilani] is the sultan of all the saints and jmm* The term
rijal allab comprises bodi saints and Muhammadan jntm^ and in the jetm
saints the borderline between jmm and saints is wellnigh obliterated.

Westermarck goes on to list animals such as frogs and snakes which
may be considered either saints or inhabited by jnun, and the shrines
associated with them.

Although the term jnun may be used for the *afantf gbwal, and
sbayatm, most Moroccans readily acknowle^ a difference, properly
speaking, between these creatures and the jnun. The shayatin are asso-
ciated with Shitan, or Satan, and have been called his children. Like
Shitan, their status in the spirit world is not certain. The Koran refers
to Shitan as both a jinn (XVIII, 48) and an angel (II, 32). Most
Moroccans hold the shayatin responsible for mischievous thoughts and
deeds, especially those deeds that appear to be more or less spontaneous

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY 137

and are against the better judgment of the man who perpetrates them.
The shayatin are often blamed for sexual misconduct.^ A man will speak
of his amorous adventures with reference to the shayatin, or he will
refer to women as shayatin when he reflects on their supposedly inex-
haustible appetites and their inabihty to counter their libidinous desires.
The transgressions for which Shitan or the shayatin are held account-
able do not inspire strong feelings of remorse or guilt; the shayatin are
not responsible for diseases of any sort.

The jnun, in the restricted sense of the term, also have to be dis-
tinguished from the huge, cannibalistic spirits known as '^afarity and the
ghivaly or ogres. Although the Koran takes notice of the jinn and
Shitan, it refers neither to the *afarit or the ghwal.^ Both the 'afarit and
the ghwal appear to have a more substantial existence than the jnun,
whose bodies are said to be made of vapor or flame. The ^afarit are,
perhaps, more powerful, clever, and evil than the "run-of-thc-mill"
jnun. Westermarck refers to them as the "aristocracy of the jnun." It
is my impression that they occupy space more often, at least, than the
ordinary jnun, and are capable of being perceived by man's ordinary
perceptual faculties. They seem to diff'er in scale and capacity from
both man and the other jnun. They mav^ be giants with tremendous,
often anthropophagous appetites; they may be capable of traveling
great distances with extraordinary rapidity; or they may be endowed
with great strength. They are always malignant and tcrrif\'ing. They
have the ability to be in more than one place at a time, to fly, and to
render themselves invisible. They may possess a person, thereby ren-
dering him a maniac with extraordinary strength.

The ghwal, or ogres, may be either male (ghul) or female (ghida).
Belief in them is widespread in the Arab world. The ancient Arabs be-
lieved that they lived in the desert and, assuming the shape of women,
led travelers astray. They appeared, and still appear in Morocco, more
often as women than as men. Usually they are giant women with long
pendant breasts and the feet of a goat. They are sometimes covered
with hair. Although they are usually ugly, they have the abihty to
change their shape and become beautiful, enticing women, who lure
tiicir victims into deserted places and eat them up. Westermarck
(1926(1):397) has written of them:

•Tlie association of the shayatin with sexual activity is exemplified by the idio-
matic expressions for sexual intercourse during dreanis: darab sh-Shitan and
fa sbSbkm,

'Line 39 of Sura 27 refers to an " 'ifrit of the inm,** but diis is probably a Sgatt
of speefh which means a very powexf ul jinn.

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The gJnval are said to live in the Sudan or Sahara or in a thick wood from
which they conie oat in the shapes of animals or who knows where? They
have black hoes and eyes like flaming iiie and are fond of human flesh.
Some people maintain diat gkvid are not jmm but a ipecies by themselves
or a kind of men or wild animals, whereas others, who seem to be partica-
larly well-informed, are of the opinion that they are of the jem kind.

The female ghwal possess many of 'Aisha Qandisha's features, and I
have heard her called a ghula. Usually, however, she is referred to as a
jinniyva or, especially b\ Ikt most constant devotees, as simply Lalla
^A'isha, a creature different from all other creatures.

The jnun — again in the more restricted sense of the w ord — are a race
of spiritual beings, created before man and said to be composed of
vapor or flame. Thev are not nomially extended over space, but they
do exist over time. They are intelligent creatures, resembling human
beings, but they have no bodies and are usually imperceptible to man's
ordinary senses. They are, however, capable of rendering themselves
visible, and often take on various animal forms: snakes, frogs, wasps,
cats, camels, donkeys, and jackals. They sometimes appear as female
temptresses or male seducers. The jnun are capable of marrying hu-
mans, and their Icfifal status has been discussed in all respects by Muslim
theologians and canonists. They are also capable of appearing in more
than one place at a time. There is, in Morocco, mixed opinion as to
whether or not the jnun are mortal. Most Moroccans believe that Mus-
hm jnun are capable of salvation.

The jnun are said to live underground, although some of them are
believed to inhabit the air between the earth and the sky. They are said
to like water and to gravitate to damp or wet places: marshes and bogs,
streams and rivers, springs and wells, and the sea. They are frequently
found near fountains, baths, toilets, and drains. Often, too, they live in
grottos and caves or around unusual trees and rocks. All the areas w'here
jnun are said to live are treated circumspectly. A Moroccan who ap-
proaches such a place will usually say bimtillah r-ralmian r-rahim^ in
the name of God the merciful and compassionate, or simply bisniillah,
to rid the area of their presence. He will also sprinkle salt, to which the
jnun have a special aversion, around toilets and drains. The jnun have
an equally intense dislike of benzoin (javH) and other incenses,* and of
iron and steel, silver, and tar.

* Nevertheless, under certain circumstances, as we shall see, the jnun are at-
tracted by or pleased with jawi and odier incense which normally drive them oS
(PSqoes 1964:559^563>.

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The jnun do not usually have characters as well-developed as, say,
the Zar of Ethiopia (Leiris 1958) or the Vodun spirits of Haiti (Me-
traux 1959). They cannot be equated with natural phenomena such as
lightning and thunder or stars and comets, although certain of the
^afarit are held responsible for these phenomena. Some of the jnun are
named, and their names are well-known to all Moroccans. Westermarck
(1926(1): 49) has called these jnun "jenn saints.'' Others — the majority
— are named, but their names are the secret of a few privileged individ-
uals who have access to their world. There is much power in the name,
and the discovery of the name of a jinn possessing a person is one of
the first steps in exorcising it.

There are male and female jnun; Muslim (Arab and Berber), Jewish,
Christian, and pagan jnun. The pagan jnun arc especially dangerous.
AH jnun are capable of marrying among themselves and bearing chil-
dren. It is claimed, in fact, that the jnun are organized into a world
which mirrors the Moroccan world. There is a king of the jnun, Sidi
Shamharush, who is venerated as a saint in some parts of the country,
around Mnrrakech,^ as well as a court of ministers, pashas, and other
traditional civil servants. A iMoroccan does not push the parallel very
far, liowevcr, and members of the jnun world do not normally have
relations with their counterpart in the phenomenal world.

Sidi Shamharush is said to have a comphcated communications net-
work that is likened to a river with a thousand tributaries, each of
which has a thousand subtributaries. There is a jinn responsible for each
of these rivers, who runs errands and carries messages for the king of
the jnun to the farthest reaches of the world. The jinn of a river is
named after the river; the names of these jnun are known only to a
few, the Koranic teachers and magicians, and their knowledge gives
them a certain control over the jnun. These magician-scholars are said
to use their power to find buried treasures — a very frequent theme in
Mofioccan folklore — and to work magic and exorcise demons.

Often the jnun make their appearance in dreams, but it is possible by
various practices involving blood, to which the jnun have a special
affinjtty, to obtain a view of them. The jnun are frequenify said to cany
mea and women off to their world and reveal its workings. It is not
unusual to hear of a man suddenly disappearing from his village and
then returning many years later to tell of his adventures among the
jnun. Many of the magician-scholars are said to leave die phenomenal

' He is believed to be buried at the foot of the Jebel ToukhaL

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THE 9AMADSHA

world for varying periods of time and to descend into the rivers, where
many of these spirits gather. They return with considerahle power and
are treated with care.

The jnun are not necessarily evil or harmful. They are whinisical
and arbitrary, capricious and revengeful, quick-tempered and despotic
— and theiefore always potentially dangerous. If th^ are wounded or
insulted, they are quick to retaliate by striking their adversary or taking
possession of him. The man, or woman, who has injured a jinn is usu-
ally quite ignorant oi his misdeed. He may have brushed against it
accidentally, trampled it inadvertently — ^particularly when the jinn has
taken on the form of an animal such as a snake or a frog — or scalded it
with boiling water which he, or more commonly she, has carelessly
thrown out. It is often said that where a jinn is injured, there will his
injurer suffer.

Men and women who are angry or frightened are particularly liable
to attack by the jnun; so are people in liminal periods associated with
change in social status. Hence pregnant women, newborn children,
boys about to be drcumdsed or just circumcised, couples about to be
married, and the dying are particularly vulnerable. There are periods
when the jnun are especially active— after mid-afternoon prayers, for
example. There are also periods when the jnun are especially inactive-—
during Ramadan, the month of fasting, when the jnun are said to be
imprisoned.

The jnun are always treated with the greatest respect, and they are
generally feared. Moroccans take all kinds of precautions to keep them
at bay. They may bum candles in the dark, sprinkle salt in areas to
which the jnun are known to gravitate, utter apotropaic phrases, when
crossing streams or thresholds, entering caves, automobiles, and un-
familiar places, or simply feeling the presence of a jinn; and they usu-
ally wear phylacteries containing words from the Koran as well as
charms to protect themselves (of. Westermarck 1926(I):302-324). The
jnun's constant interference with man's daily life is accepted fatalisti-
cally, however, as one of the givens of wor^y existence.

Named-Jntoi

There are, as I have said, certain jnun whose names are common
knowledge and whom I have chosen to call ''named-jnun." They are
not linguistically distinguished in Moroccan Arabic, as far as I know,

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141

but are always referred to by their proper names.® Westemiarck has
classified many of them as individual spirits. Because the named-jnun,
especially 'Aisha Qandisha, play an important role in Hamadsha ther-
apy, it is necessary to consider them and their relationship with human
beings in detail.

With the exception of the belief in ^Aisha Qandisha, belief in the
named-jnun in Morocco is associated primarily with the Gnawa. The
Gnawa, like the other so-called black brotherhoods of the Maghreb,
have an elaborate hierarchy of demons, which are associated with spe-
cial colors, incense, dance steps, and musical phrases."^ There is some
character differentiation among them (Dermcnghem 1954; Paqucs
1964). The named-jnun are also associated with the Jilaliyya — the more
"popular" and spectacular of the two brotherhoods that claim to be
followers of al-Jilani. (The Jilala, however, are often confused with
the Gnawa in Morocco.) Brunei (1926:145 et seq.) mentions the be-
lief in named-jnun among the Isawa. The Hamadsha themselves, as
well as most other Moroccans of their background, recognize the
Gnaw a origin of many of their named-jnun.

Westermarck has argued (1926(1): 379 et seq.; also see Paques 1964)
that the belief in these named-jnun was brought north from sub-
Saharan Africa by black African slaves. The word "Gnawa" is said to
be derived from Guinea. Tremcarne (1914) has traced similar Tunisian
beliefs to the Hausa; Andrews (1903) found them among the Songhrai
immigrants to Algiers. I myself was told both by members of the

*lb many of the religions of N oftliwwtt Afxka, Modi of tbe Sahttt, a diidnccUm
is made linguisdcaUy Beeweea the named and mmamed spirits (Greehberg 1946;

OrtigTjes 1966).

^yiviana Paques, in her extraordinary monograph, VArbre Cosmique (1964:
5<K), examines the vvniboKc significance of these associated demoits In tenns of
an esoteric "African connology. She considers the dances symbolic, xecalling the

first mythic and cosmic events which brought about the formation of the world
in which we live. Basdde (1958:175) has argued similarly for the condoinble of
Bahia. **Li transe leligieiise est r6glee par les mod^ mythiques; elle n'cst qaNme
repetition dcs mythes. La duMe devient un 'op£n iabiuear; l*eipzesBion ccl&hre

de Rinihand 'colle' exactement au phenomene."

Among Che J^amadsha, and among other Moroccans of their milieu, I have
fooiid no sach symbolic associadons— 4md no knowledge even of tttt existence of

such estoteric beliefs of which Paques writes. The Hamadsha consider their dances
as work for the saints tlicy worship and as an appeasement of the jnun. They
recognize of course that they fall into trance and mutilate themselves as Sidi
Ahnied (and Sdi ^Ali) did. This is Inevkidde. It is the will of Allah, and perhaps
the will of the Hamadsha saints and the jnun, even. They see it as a mark of
devotion, of worship, even of obligation, but not as the symbolically significant
reenactment of the practices of the saiiiu tlicy worship.

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142 THE HAMADSHA

Gnflwa order and by nonmenibers living in the Valley of the Sous (at
Sidi Ahmed ou Mousa and at lUcrgh) that the belief in these oamed-
jnun came from the Sudan. Legends like that of 'Ai'sha Qandisha sug-
gest a Sudanese origin. Parallels between the religions just south of the
Sahara — the religions of the Hausa, the Songliai, and the Zar worship-
pers in Ethiopia — and the belief in named-jnun among the Gnawa,
Jilala, Ijlamadsha, and *Isawa are striking.

The extent to which the belief In named-jnun and the development
of specific relationships to them is restricted to the followers of these
brodierhoods cannot be determined. Midiaux-Bellaire (1913:294)
found belief in them current among the women of the Gharb in 1913.
In fact, he suggested that this belief was restricted to women; but it
exists today among both men and women affiliated with the Qamadsha
and other similar brotherhoods. Still, it is claimed that more women
than men have intimate relations with the named-jnun, especially with
the female ones. The section of the b^dra devoted to these demons is
said to be for women. One of my best informants suggested that belief
in them is restricted to Arabs of the northern countryside: Gharbawa,
Beni Hsen, Shrarda, Hajawa, and Zrahna. Although there certainly is
such a belief among these people, I am not certain that the belidF is
restricted to them.

The named-jnun have all the attributes of ordinary jnun. Their
character traits and personalities are more elaborate, but they are not
as well worked out as those of the Vodun and Zar spirits. Some of
them, like 'Aisha (^disha, have legends associated with them. Having
names, they all have sexual identities. The majority are female, but
there are a few males. Some of the males are married to the females
and may even have children. The named-jnun often appear as incubi
and succubi. (Often the unnamed do, too.) Unlike the ordinary jnun,
they establish definite relations with men and women and make certain
demands on them.

The relationship between a man or a woman and his or her named
jinn or jinniyya is complicated. Such a man is said to be the follower
{tabi^) of the jinn and to lean on (fmittakil) or rest against (muzvali)
the jinn. Msmnad may also be used to describe the relationship be-
tween a man and his jinn, although it is usually restricted to his rela-
tionship with a saint. A man can decide — but does not necessarily de-
cide — ^to become msannad to a saint; he cannot decide to become a
follower of a jinn. It is the jinn, as we shall see, who always decides
this. Once the relationship has been established, the jinn makes certain

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143

demands on his follower. These usually involve wearing a certain color,
burning a special incense, and perfonnii^ the hadra to a special musical
pl^ase (ril?). The jinn may also require special food and sexual taboos,
visits to shrines, periodic sacrifices, or the sponsoring of ceremonies,
especially those given by the J^^bunadsha, the Gnawa, and the Jilala.

^Aisha Qandishtfi

Of all the named jnun, ^Aisha Qandisha is the most important for
the Hamadsha. They consider themselves to be her special devotees.
Often they refer to her as "^Aisha Sudaniyya/' "^Aisha Gnawiyya,"
"Lalla ^Aisha" (Lady 'Aisha), or the great female muqaddim. I have
also heard them call her "our mother." Westermarck (1926(1): 395-
396) identifies 'Aisha Qandisha with Astarte, the goddess of love of the
ancient Eastern Mediterranean. He suggests that "Qandisha" is related
to "Qedesha," the name for the temple harlot in the "Canaanitish cults,"
and that belief in her was brought to Morocco by the cnrly Phoenician
Invaders. He further suggests that Hammu Qiyu, 'Aisha's jinn-husband,
can be identified with the Carthaginian god Hamnm. While the belief
in *Aisha Qandisiia and the Hamadsha practices do show parallels with
ancient Mediterranean beliefs and practices, there are equally strong
parallels between the belief in 'Atsha Qandisha and current belief in
other female demons and ogresses throughout the Mediterranean basin
and in sub-Saharan Africa (Frazer 1961).

Although 'Ai'sha Qandisha is generally referred to as a "jinniyya,"
hef exact status in the Moroccan demonology has never been deter-
mined specifically. To the coastal Arabs she is a siren, and to those of
the interior she is a sort of chthonian mother associated with earth,
mud, water, and rivers. She is always libidinous and quick-tempered.
She never laughs, and she is always ready to strangle, scratch, or whip
anyone who insults her or does not obey her commands. It is said that
she prefers the morning air for her walks. Like Kali-Parvati, she may
appear to believers either as a beauty or as a hag with long pendant
breasts. Usual! \', even in her beautiful manifestations, she has the feet
of a camel, a donkey, or an ass. Sometimes she appears with the legs
of a woman and the body of a goat with pendant breasts (Westermarck
1926(1): 392). Throughout northern Morocco tiicrc are places sacred
to her. These are usually pits, grottos, springs, and fountains, as well
as other spots where someone is said to have seen her or where some-

"Seeabo pp. 43-45.

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thing uncanny has taken place. The Hamadsha, particularly Sidi *AIi*s
followers, say she resides principally in the grotto of Beni Rachid.
However, she too is capable of appearing in many places at the same
time.

When ^Aisha Qandisha presents herself to a man a$ a beautiful
woman, a seductress, that man will have no defense against her power
unless he immediately plunges a steel knife into the earth. He is then
privileged to reject her entirely or to make a "marriage coiitCBCt^ with
her dm is to his own advantage. (This is infrequent, since Lalla
^Aisha invariably hides her camel*s feet under a flowing caftan.) If a
man has been unfortunate enough to sleep with her before discoveiing
her identity, he becomes her slave forever and must follow her com^
mands expUdtly, Otherwise, she is sure to strangle him.

A man is walking ak>ng a road, and suddenly his vision blurs. He thinks
there is something wrong widi his eyes, but in ftcc k Is Lalla *AS^ ^asua-
wiyya [one of *Aisba Qindisha's manifestations]. He sees only her in front
of htm, and he looks on and sees only her. When he comes to an isolated
crossing or path, she talces him by the hand. She asks him why he is follow-
ing her and where he knows her from. The man tries to excuse himself and
says that he thought she was a woman he knew. She says, "Fine. Welcome.
Come with me. But we must go into a garden, and not into a house," "I'll
even go beyond the garden," the man answers. Lalla 'Aisha agrees and tells
the man to follow her. Because he follows her, he sees only clouds. He
alone sees her. Suddenly they find themselves in a big garden widi a lot of
food, near a well-fumished house. Lalla 'Ajsha talces the shape of a woman
the man loves and desires. She has the same features as the beauty, but they
are slightly exaggerated. Her bust is eighty centimeters. They make love.
Afterward she asks him what he wants to do. The man says he is single and
wants to marry. Lalla V\isha says she wants to do the same. "We'll make a
vow [ahd] to God," she says. She tells him not to tell anyone, not even
his mother. If he does, she'll have his throat. She tells him that she will
sleep with other men. "I'll help you with money," she says. "You must not
wear European clothes except if they are covered with a jellaba." Then she
asks him if he kmiws her. She tdls him who A» is. If you do not do what
I say" she says, youll not have me or any odier woman." The man
asks for duee days to think k over. Lalla *ASsha gives him four. 'If I don't
do diis," die man thinks to himself, "then Fll have to dress in a darbeia
[a n^ged and patched cloak]. I may even lose my life. I'll marry her.
Everyone knows me. I don't want them to see me change.** *

* This example of 'Aisba's ways was given me by one of my best informants, a
bom stor^tellcar, ytho wptta. hours entertaining friends whh his tales. He was not a
Qsmdushi but was very funiliar with dieir ways. He was p<^nilaily diou^ to

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I THE THEORY OF THERAPY 145

Often 'Aisha will demand that the man wear old and dirty clothes re-
gardless, and that he never cut his hair or fingernails. She will usually
restrict his sexual life too. She may f oibid Imn to mtikt lovt to any
vnmisai but heiself and his real ixdi e, or to any woman who is not on
her side, her follower. Sach men are said to be married (mjawwej) to
*Aisha Qandisha, and they ait treated circumspectly. This special xda-
tioi^hip to *Aisha seems to bear no relation to membership in the
madldia brotherhoods. In fact, only a few of ^Aisha's husbands are
Qamadsha.

^Aisha CJandisha requires her followers— and not necessarily her hus-
bands— ^ways to wear red, bkdc, or chartreuse green, or any combina-
tion of these colors. Red and black are the more common. Her incense
is black jawi (benzoin) or hasalban (?), which is used to placate her,
especially when she takes possession of her follower. She prefers the
music of the ](jhmadsha, and often requires her followers to perform
the hadra. Her special rib has the following words:

O 'ATsha! Rise and place yourself in the service of die cause of Allah and

the Prophet

O Sire! Greerings to the Prophet. Welcome, O Lalla '^Aisha.
The altar is prepared. O Lalla ^Aisha! O Gnawijya!
Welcome, O Daughter of the river. Allah! Allah! Lalla ^Aisha!
She has come! She has come! She has come! Lalla '^Aisha!

There is some variation in these words.^*^ This rib is played at the peak
of the Hamadsha b^dia. The lights are turned out, and *A!sha is said
to r^ from the earth under the dancers and dance wirii her devotees.
People daim that whenever and wherever the Qamadsha perform
their l^dra, *A&ha Qandisfaa is under them in the earth. She is par-
ticularly fond of blood, and often requires her followers to make
sacrifices (dab^pas) to her. Black and red chickens are her most com-
mon demands. She also makes certain that her followers slash their
heads vfhok they hear her special ri^ or another ril^ that pleases her.
Still other of her followers are made to imitate [ugs or cunds when
they perform the b^dni. Sach dieriomimetic behavior is even more
common among the Isawa (Brunei 1926:168 et seq.).
Sometimes 'Aisha Qandisha fragments into a number of different

be married to the shc-dcmon, and he considered himself to be tomicnted by her.
This tale, which is considerably embellished and not without humor and suspense,
was told to me in front of several ^amadsha devotees vrho were very impressed
by it.

" Wcstermarck (1926(1): 393) records a verse employed in the area of the Duk-
kala tribe: "^Aisha Qandisha is sitting and smears herself with henna.'*

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jinniyyas, each with a slightly different personality: Lalla "^Aisha Su-
daniyya, who is also called Lalla 'Aisha Gnawiyya and is the "basic"
'Aisha Qandisha; Lalla ^Aisha Dghughiyya; Lalla 'Aisha Dghugha;
and Lalla 'Aisha Hasnawi>ya. It is sometimes said that these jinniyyas
are the daughters of ^Aisha Qandisha, but most often th^ are simply
named and their relationship to 'Aisha Qandisha is left unquestioned.
They all require their followers to wear black or red, but they appear
to be placated by diflferent incenses. Lalla 'Aisha Dghughiyya likes red
jawi; Lalla 'Aisha Dghugha likes harmal {Paganum harmola)\ and Lalla
*Aisha Hasnawiyya likes tar (qatran). I have been told that these
"ladies" have different favorite times of day for taking walks. Lalla
'Aisha Dghughiyya likes the hours immedately following afternoon
prayers; Lalla 'Aisha Dghugha prefers the hours after evening prayers;
Lalla ^Aisha Hasnawiyya only the first few hours after evening pray-
ers. Lalla 'Aisha Dghughiyya supposedly comes from Sidi Ahmed's
village, and Lalla 'Aisha Dghugha from the village of Sidi 'Ali. (Lalla
*Aisha Dghugha is said to be particularly fond of houses.) Lalla 'Aisha
hasnawiyya comes, as her name indicates, from the Beni Hsen. There
is considerable variation in the extent to which these manifestations of
'Aisha Quandisha are developed. Many of the ^amadsha do not believe

in them, and some have never heard of thenu
•

Hamntu Qiyu and Sidi Ifanrmu

According to some reports, "^Aisha Qandisha is married to a jinn
called Hammu Qiyu. Like most of the male jnun, his character is
relatively undeveloped; however, the Hamadsha insist that he must
be distinguished from still another jinn called Sidi Hammu. Sidi
Hammu likes red jawi and is particularly fond of blood. In fact, he
hves around slaughterhouses and slaughter blocks, and is said to have
a particularly intimate relationship with butchers. He has a number of
followers among the Hamadsha, and is known to have sexual relations
with some of the female devotees. The words of his rih are:

Sdi Hammu, forgive us.
O, Our Prophet, forgive us.
Messenger of God, forgive us.
Men of God, forgive us.

LaUa MaHka

Lalla Malika, the daughter of the king, has the most elaborate per-
sonality of the remaining she-demons popularly beheved in the Meknes
area. She does not respond to the badra of the Hamadsha — ^she re-

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY 147

sponds instead to the dances of the Gnawa and Jilala — but she is often
referred to by Hamadsha and has relations with manv of them. Lalla
Malika is very beautiful and dresses, as they say, with a lot of chic.
She demands the same elegance of all her followers. She is a flirt and
quite promiscuous, and she especially enjoys relationships with married
men. I have been told she speaks only French and that she lives in
clothes cabinets.

When Lalla Malika sees someone die likes, she goes up to him and passes
her hapd in hoot of his eyes. The person dien sees only douds. He sees
nodiing but Lalk Malika. He cannot remember his house. Lalb Malika re-
mains next to him. When she sees him standing off to the side, she calls him
by name and tells him that she is next to him and asks him to accept her
wishes. The man agrees. "I want you to marry me," she says. "I want you
to sleep with me." Tlie man agrees, say, on condition that he has the libcrt}''
to have intercourse with other women. Lalla Malika agrees. Once they have
come to an agreement, the man asks to see her. (He has not seen her up to
this time.) She appears in front of him with clothes embroidered in gold,
sometimes with long hair, sometimes with short hair. Then she says all right.
The man i^ees. *Tm in your hands,** he says. He can dien many her or
sleep widi her. It is all die same. She tells him to wear perfumes, to shave
ofttti, and to wear new cknhes. "Then youH have your liberty,** she tdls
him. **^11 even help you escape prison."

Lalla Malika is always gay, and she does not attack her followers. She
likes to laugh and tickle them, and she is responsible when a group of
women suddenly begin giggling. She prefers the color |Mnk, and re-
quires her followers to wear eau de cologne and bum santal (A-W
qamari)* Her rih is usually played by the Gnawa or Jilala, but it may
be played by the ijamadsha if, as happens occasionally, she should
take possession of one of the dancers in their ^dra. The words of her
lib arcj as follows:

Welcome, Lalla .Malika! Welcome, O ^A,lawiyya!
Welcome, Lalla Malika, to the hadra of Lalla Malika.
AUah! LaUa Malika! I beseech Lalla Malika.
Allah! Lalla Malika! He who beseeches can have no fear.
I Allah! Daughter of the Prophet.

Lalla Mira

After *Aisha Qandisha, Lalla iMira has perhaps the greatest following
among the women of Meknes. She makes them wear bright yellow or

'^Thl^ example was given by die same infonnant who told me of ^ASAt^ ways.

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orange and burn yellow jawi. I have been told that she comes from
the Beni Mtir, a Berber tribe, and she is often called L4dla Mira al-
Mtiriyya. She lives in houses and takes her walks after afternoon pray-
ers. Her character is poorly developed. She makes people laugh, but
also attacks and takes possession of them. She is unmarried.

Somedmes a woman vistts anodier and begins to gossip. LaUa Mira listens
to them. If one of the women should cridcize her, then she will attack her.
Then the woman most wear yeUow, the color of Lalla Mira, and perform
the hadra. Lalla Mira can attack someone who is laughing or crying a lot.
Somedmes a woman who is crying is suddenly paralyzed. She cuntinues to
cry as long as she is paralyzed. You must dien put henna in her hands, in
her mouth, and in her nose. She may recover or waste away. Lalia Mira also
attacks women who do not perform the i^adra correcdy.

She responds to the hadras of the Hamadsha and the Jilala. Her rih is:

Allah! Lalla Mira! O, Gnawa! O, my eye!

I am your loyal servant.

I wish God to grant me my desires.

O, Oar Prophet, ibrgive me.

O virtaons saints, forgive me.

Lalla Afhnuna

LaUa Mimima, some say, comes from the area of the Gueiouan, a
Berber tribe to the south of Meknes. She lives in wells and old deserted
hotises. She makes her followers wear blue and bum b^isalban, and
has been likened to "a woman who does not get on with her fausbuid."
She often attacks both men and women. She responds to the b^dras
of the Gnawa and the Qamadsha. I have been told that she likes to
seduce men when they are traveling.

Other Named-Jmm

The female jnun play a much more active role in the lives of the
l^^amadsha than do the male jnun. The male jnun are less developed
as characters, and their demands are not so clearly formalized. Sidi
Mimun, Moulay Brahim (who is sometimes identified with Moulay
Brahim, a famous saint buried near Marrakech), Sidi Musa, and Sidi
Qamnra are all unportant to the Meknes Qamadsha. Their ribs are
played at nearly every hadra.*^ In other parts of the country, other

''The w<»ds of the ii|^ of diese duee jnun ace:

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY 149

jnun play important roles in the Hamadsha ceremonies. They are
known to the Hamadsha of Meknes, but they have neither influenced,
attacked, nor taken possession of them.

The Problem of Diagnostics

The ^jUunadsha — and other Moroccans of amilar background — em-
ploy a not entirely consistent taxonomy of diseases which appears to
be based on three piindpal factors: etiology (pathogenesis), symp-
tomatology, and responsiveness to cure. These factors are interrelated,
and no lattempt has been made to isolate any one of them or give it
priority in the construction of a consistent disease taxonomy. There
is little interest in disease classification per se. What is important is
the efficacy of the cure. The Moroccans are pragmadsts. They operate
on the basis of hunches— hypotheses— the validity of which is con-
firmed by the efficacy of the cure. A man falls ilL His general symp-
toms, both physical and mental, as well as certain social considerations
which would receive scant attention in Western medical tfacfi^iy—-
Does he have an enemy? Is he better off than the other members of
his social group? Has he more than one wife?— suggest a cause for
the disease. The man may have been poisoned; he may be the victim
of the evil eye; he may be suffering the effects of witchcraft. For each
etiological hunch, a. certain remedy or series of remedies is appropriate.
If one of them proves successful, then the hunch has been validated,
and the disease appropriately interpreted and classified. It should be
pointed out that each of these hunches "formulates" the disease. This
is, of course, particularly true of those diseases which the Westerner
would consider psychogenic, but it affects at least the psychological
dimensions of all illnesses.

Allah! O Sidi iMimun the Gnawi! O my eye!
Pardon, O our Prophet. O messenger of God, pardon.
Sidi iViimun, pardon. The vinuous of the Sahara, pardon.
Prophet of iUlah, pardon. Messei^er of God, pardon.

The saint! Sdi Must!

Pardon, Sidi Musa. O, Allah!
O, Door of Mum in die Gnawa.

Sidi Musa!

Moulay Brahiin

O, Moulay Brahim, pardon.

O, Moulay Hasan, pardon.

As well as the virtuous men of Allah, pardon*

I have come as a guest, pardon.

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Symptomatology, however, is by no means insignificant. It provides
a limit to the range of possible etiological hypotheses. A man whose
lips turn blue after drinking a glass ol mint tea and who is then unable
to retain any food is not to be confused with a man who suddenly
falls into a convulsion and awakes to find the left side of his body
paralyzed. The blue lips immediately suggest poisoning and a whole
range of cures. The paralysis indicates tbat the man has been struck
by a jinn, and suggests another series of cures. Social considerations,
which are not necessarily articulated or even conscious, may en-
courage a particular eiqilanation or even limit iL Thus, if the heml-
plegiac is Imown to have prevented his son from attending Hamadsha
performances, it is reasonable to assume that *AS^ Qandisha Is re-
sponsible for his paralysis. The range of possible cures is limited
tiiereby to a pilgrimage to Beni Raclud or an invitation to the Qamad-
sha. If the hemiplegiac recovers after having tried either or both of
these cures, it is assumed that 'Alsha did in fact strike him. If the cures
prove ineffective, a new hypothesis is fonnulated and new cures are
tried.

Symptomatology provides, then, diagnostic guidelines. Diseases,
however, are da^Ged less on the basis of symptoms than on etiological
considerations, and the correctness of these conadcfatiofis is validated
by the efficacy of the appropriate cure. Since etiology provides the
key to disease classification, its underlying structure has to be un-
covered. Here I will limit my analysis to those illnesses which are said
to be caused by the jnun.

The jnun are held accountable for a wide variety of diseases that
the Westerner would consider physical, and others that he would
consider psychological The illnesses for which the jnun are edologic
agents fall into two principal categories. In one, the jnun are said to
have caused the illness, but they do not play a role in its treatment. In
the other, the jnun are also said to have caused the illness, but here
they are explicitly involved in the treatment of it. These categories
are not disringui^ed by the Moroccan. I have chosen to term the
particular way in which the jnun are held accountable for the first
category of illness the explicative mode of responsibility; the second
category, the participatianal mode of responsibility.

The Explicatwe Mode of Responsibility

The jnun serve simply as an ea^lanatory device for phenomena
which cannot otherwise be explained within the cultural system as a
whole— or, more specifically, within the individual's own cultural

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• THE THEORY OF THERAPY 151

reality. The individual does not immediately associate the illness with
the jnun. He refers to the jnun only when he is hard-pressed to find
an explanation for the illness. For example, in discussing the reasons
why a man goes crazy {ha?fiiq), one of my informants told me that
a man becomes crazy when he has lost all of his money or all of his
children in some disaster. I then asked him about a particular man who
was considered crazy. This man had neither lost all of his money nor
all of his children, nor suffered an\' similar disastrous experience. "Ah,"
my informant said, "it is those people there." He assured me that he
had no idea why "those people there" chose to make the man crazy.
It was written. Similarly, he had no idea of how the jnun made the man
crazy. There was nothing to be done, he said. The Hamadsha, the
Gnawa, or even the Koranic teachers who specialize in exorcism could
do nothing. True, the man's family could take him to a saint's tomb;
there was always the chance that a saint could help him, but this was
doubtful. The man was sure to end up in Berecliid, the government's
mental hospital.^'

The jnun function in the explicative mode of responsibility as a
full stop in the speculations of an individual. They may serve to ex-
plain why or even how that individual fell ill. They set a limit to the
causal chain; there is nothing more to add but to say that it is written,
that it is the will of God. In this mode of responsibihty, the jnun do
not represent, reflect, or symbolize a dynamic process within the
disease. They are, rather, a logical construct whose symbolic function
is much more diffuse.

The Participational Mode of liesponsibiUty

Here, too, the jnun function as an explanatory device for phe-
nomena! which cannot otherwise be ex|dained either coltorally or per-
sonally. I No other explanations will be offered first, however; the
jnnn do not serve in this case as a full stop to speculation about the

illness. The illness is related immediately and dynamically to the
jnun. Not only have the jnun — or, more often, a single jinn — caused
the illness, but they "participate" somehow in the illness itself and must
be appe^ised to bring about a cure. In this mode of responsibility the
jnun are more than a logical construct. They represent, image, or sym-
bolize an etiological factor or a dynamic process within the illness it-
1

When a man goes crazy because he has lost all his money or all his diildceii,

it is usually not the jnun who are responsible for these disasters. They ane at-
tributed to the evil eye — to the jealousy of someone within the man's socie^.

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self (see below). It is precisely with this category of diseases that the
Hamadsha are concerned.

A Taxonomy of Jhm-Froduced Illnesses

The Qamadsha — am xcstricdng myself here to the Qamadsha in
and around Meknes, since there are considerable dialectic^ differences
in Morocco— recognize several different ways in which the jnun can
cause an illness in their victuns.^* The mode of attack is usually sug-
gested by the symptomatology. The person who exhibits the symp-
toms of a possession state is said to be "inhabited" {maskun) by a jinn,
whereas the person who suddenly is paralyzed is said to have been
struck (madrub) by a jinn. These distinctions in attack, however, only
partially correspond to symptomatic differences. Thus, while it is
possible to differentiate linguistically between a blind man and a par-
alyzed man, it is also pos^le to refer to both of them as nudrubf
as "having received a severe blow by a jinn,*' if both the blindness and
paralysis occurred under certain circumstances— suddenness of onset,
for earample — and if the men exhibit no counterindicadve symptoms —
such as, in the case of the blind man, a cataract. In only one instance
is a category of the jnun-produced illnesses symptom-specific: matfusb.
The word matmsb refers to a sudden, unikteral paral}^ of the face,
usually on the left side. It is believed to be the result of a slap in
the face by a jinn.^

The jnun attack in two principal ways. They may strike a person,
or they may take possession of him. If the victim is struck, he usualty
suffers from some detrimental bodily change: blindness, deafness,
mutism, paralysis of the limbs or face. If the victim is possessed, he
exhibits idl of the classical symptoms of ^'possession states**: falling un-
conscious; syncope; convulsions; tremors; speaking in tongues; sud-
den and abrupt, often meaningless, changes in conversation or activity;
flights of thought; and so forth. The jnun are believed to enter the
body of both the possessed and the struck. They remain with the pos-
sessed; with the struck they enter and leave aknost immediately.^*

While the terms describing individuals who have been attacked by

'^Ahfaoogh there is a diffeieiice in temunology, I do not believe that the
basic discinctioa between being strode and beu^ possessed is q;nored in any

dialects.

" It should be noted that the Moroccan Arab is particularly sensitive to slaps,
which he finds far more uisolting md homiliacing man blows of ihe fist.

"Just as possession states must be disdngoished from states of being struck, so
must they be distinguished from trance states (Bourgignon 1968; Wallace 1959).
Possession is an interpretation of a syndrome which can occur in everyday life
or during the trance dance. All trances are not interpreted as possession states, as

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! THE THEORY OF THERAPY 153

the jnun are often used loosely to refer to either or both modes of
attack, they do sutrgest the mode of attack and qualify its intensity.
They may be arranged as shown in Figure 8.

MAJNUN

1™ ' ^ "'^

u.
o

(MAS^UT) MUSHAR

(MAKHLU^) (MAWALI)

MIRYAy (MATRUSH)

MAQIUS

MASKUN MADRUB

FIGURE 8

Mapmn appears to be used most often as a generic term for anyone
who has been attacked by a jinn. It may refer either to someone who
has been struck or to someone who is possessed. When used mofe
specificallv, it refers to someone who is possessed, and not struck.

MasuH and rmklt^ are descriptive of a person who is temporarily
possessed by a jnun but not in need of any treatment. MasuH refers
to someone obsessed with an idea; it may be translated as monomania-
cal. So long as the jinn is in the person, that person is obsessed with
an idea of activity. Makhlu^ refers to someone who is afraid, transfixed
with fear, or even paralyzed with fear. It is the jinn who, entering
him, has caused this state of fear (khal^a) (Westermarck 1926(1):
276). These terms are used to describe sudden and unexpected moods
which come over a person and for which he does not feel himself
fullv responsible. References to the jnun in explaining these and other
similar states are frequent.^^ Although the person who is either masu^

we riutt see. Possession in everyday life, vrbich. may tmrobe trance-like (dtsao-

ciative) states, is considered an illness. During the trance dance, it is considered
part of the course and of therapeutic import. As a given in the Hamadsha's world,
possession serves not only as an interpretation of a particular syndrome but also
as a model for behavior.

^"Compare this function of the jnun with "the intervention of namdess and
indeterminate daemon or *god' or 'gods' " in the lUad (Dodds 1966:11).

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THE HAMADSHA

or makhlu' docs not usually require the hadra of the Hamadsha, both
terms are often used to describe the prodromal condition of a man
who later becomes possessed or is struck and requires the hadra or
some other treatment. The Hamadsha, particular! V' those who trance
frequently, will usually feel the need to perfonn the hadra after ex-
periencing such states of fear or obsession.

Mary a}? is used to describe a person who is possessed.

Maskun is more specific than maryah, since it refers to an individual
who is actually inhabited by a jinn. It is the strongest word that can
be used to describe someone possessed. Here the jinn is well lodged in
the person, who exhibits the classical symptoms of possession.

The masfcumn [pL of maskun] talk with yoo normally and then suddenly
tfa^ appear to be in flight. Sometimes diey talk -and agree with what yon
are saying, then suddenly they will not agree with anything. Sometimes
their brain changes. Sometimes there is something [the jnun] that takes
hold of their brain and their head turns. Then dicy are all right again. They
only felt something pinching their brain.^^

The Hamadsha consider sudden changes in conversation or activity, as
w cU as convulsions, to be the significant symptoms of a person called

iiia.skun.

Maqiiis is the term most frequently used to describe a person who
is attacked by the jnun. It may refer both to someone who is possessed
by a jinn and to someone struck by a jinn. The jinn is usually con-
sidered to be in the person. The person may also suffer sonic bodily
change. One of my informants explained the term to me as follows.

A person is maqius by the jnun. He feels absent It is as though

someone is in front of the person, and die person is outside his body. Some-
times he falls and trembles. [I asked him where the jinn is.] God only knows
where t!ie jinn is. It is possible that die jinn is in the body. But this is not
sure. There are some who are ghaib and tremble and fall, and others who
are sick and remain seated and immobile in the comer \mqaUesb'\,

Ghaib is often used to describe the condition of a person in trance.
It is usually translated as "absent" but, as my informant seems to sug-
gest, it refers to a state of dissociation.

Another of my informants explained maqius tliis way.

This dcscriprion and the one that follows were given to me by an older
J^amdushi who has been involved in the treatment of many of the devil-struck
and the devil-possessed. He himsdf his been ma^os on mine dian one occanon.
His descripdons were oonfiRned hy many of my odier informants.

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There arc people who arc walking normally and suddenly their foot stops.
Thcv cannot move it. It always happens to people who are crossing a
stream and to not sa\- bisjtiillah r-ralmian r-rah'nn [in the name of Allah
die merciful and the compassionate]. When you say this the jnun will not
appioa^ yon. Only one of the man's legs is paralyzed— die one that steps
on the other side of the stream first. A hand can be maqtos if yoa tfaraw a
rock and hit a jinn by accident. The jinn is only in the part of the body
ivhere the person is sick. He can talk normally. The jinn is wounded in die
same place. The person is not maskun.

A perion who is maqius may perhaps best be described as in a state

of partial possession.

Mushar is derived from the verb shir, to point, to point a finger at,
to signal It is the weakest of all the expressions used to qualify a
person struck by a jinn. I have been told that the jinn does not even
graze his victim; he simply points at him. The victim seldom bears a
mark of the jinn — manifest bodily harm or malfunctioning. At most,
he undergoes a slight, often temporary paralysis. The more usual
symptom is general malaise. The term often refers to the very first
contact a person ever has with a jinn.

Matrush has already been considered.

Madrub, derived from the verb to beat (darb), qualifies a person
u'ho has been severely struck by a jinn. This usually involves paralysis
of the legs, feet, arms, or hands — ^most frequently on the left side— but
it may also refer to sudden blindness, deafness, or mutism. "The person
has an arm or leg that does not work. He cannot clench his fist quickly.
Sometimes you see someone who has a string around his slippers to hold
them on. Such a person is madrub." "To be madrub is more dangerous
than to be maskun. It is stronger. The moment a person who is madrub
falls, you think he will die. He can fall oS a tree or a mountain.**

All of these terms, in one grammatical form or another, are used
frequently by Mcknes Hamadsha to describe vicdms of the jnun. Oc-
casionally, they refer to these victims as slaves {nundukm) of the jnun.
There are, however, many other ways of referring to the victims, to
their condition, and to their relationship with the jnun. Often these
involv^ complex paraphrases.^*

"The most common expresnons-Hiiany of which do not indicate so neady
whether die victim is strucK or possessed — are as follows: fih l-aryah (1-aryah are
in him)} fih ej-jnun (the jnun are in him); bih ej-jnun (the jnun are with him);
sbadduh Uarya^ (1-aryah have seized him); and tiyuh Lo'dam or tab bp-
l-a'^davi (fall into epileptoid convolsioiis).

It should be noted that a^dam may mean bones. The relationship between booet
and attacks by the jnim and the need to trance is discussed later.

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There is considerably more fluidity in the use of the terms to describe
the jinn-struck and the jinn-possessed than my paradigm suggests. The
fluidity stems not only from the normal looseness of everyday speech
but abo from the type of relationship the jnun maintain with human
beings. This is subject to considerable variation. Often a person who
first is struck (madrub) will later become possessed {maskun). More-
over, these terms are used to describe various conditions of an individ^
ual in trance who may be possessed, paralyzed, or rendered blind, deaf,
or mute by a jinn. One ](|amdushi put it tiiis way, after we had dis-
cussed the meaning of the words in my paradigm:

All of these words can be used in the same way. To be madrub is to have
been given a good blow. MaqmSy a much lighter one. Matrusb is from a

slap. Maskun occurs when the jnun are in the body. Sometimes when die
nuiislam talks he is all right, and at other times he confuses everything. A
person is Tmishar when the jnun have reached out but have not touched the
person they want to slap. It is the least strong. Miiwali is a light touch.
[I have not discussed muvvali in my paradigm, because it is more often used
to describe a relationship with a jinn or jiniy\'a.J A person who is madrub
may be distinguished from a person who is 7naqius by the fact that he
(the former) always has a mark— a black-and-blue mark, a scratch, or a
swelling, paralysis, drooling, a tight moudi. The person who it ma^ku is
always sick, but he does not know where. Matrusb is always the face.
Madrub refers to other parts of the body. Maskun refers to a person who
is inhabited for a long time. MuwaH, just struck. Musbar, never before
struck, just touched.

Diseases of the Named and Unnamed Jnun

The Qamadsha and other Moroccans of their background do not
distinguish between iUnesses caused by the named-jnun and those
caused by the unnamed ones, just as they do not distinguish between
named and unnamed jnun. However, in their etiological theories there
seems to be a difference between the two types of illness, and these
differences are reflected in their choice of treatment. (There is not, to
my knowledge, any difference in manifest s^'mptoms.) It has to be re-
membered, nevertheless, that the distinction between diseases caused by
named-jnun and those caused by unnamed ones is analytical and as such
implies a certain consistency and rigidity which is not found in as prag-
matic a therapy as the Hamadsha^s.

While it is possible for the jnun, both named and unnamed, to attack
a human being for no apparent reason, it is rare. Most illn^^^f for
which the jnun are held accountable are the results of transgressions

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY 157

committed by tlic sufferer against the jnun. Botli the named and the
unnamed jnun, being sensitive to insult and injury, are quick to re-
tahatc for wrongs committed against them. In tlie case of most illnesses
for wiiich the unnamed jnun are held accountable, the victim is un-
aware of his transgression. Often it is suggested rliat rlie victim inad-
vertently trampled on a jinn wliile walking at night or that he threw
boiling water or fire on it, particularly if he threw the water or fire
into a drain, a spot popular with the jnun.

The initial attack by a named- jinn — attack is one of the most com-
mon ways a named-jinn establishes a relationship with a human being
— resembles an attack by an unnamed jinn. Often, the victim docs not
know how he has offended the jinn. Speculations about the cause of the
illness are similar to those for illnesses caused by the unnamed jimi.
Once the name of the jinn is uncovered (see below), and the victim
has been appropriately treated, most, if not all, subsequent "attacks"
are interpreted as an attack by that particular jinn. The victim is con-
sidered to be dependent {mufwaliy muttakil) on the jinn from that time
on. If the victim, without ever having been previously attacked, is
already dependent on a named- jinn, symptoms of an attack by the jnun
are also interpreted in terms of the jinn he follows. This sort of de-
pend^cy relationship is formed most often during the hadra, when a
person who is not ill is thrown into trance by a rib known to be the
favorite of a particular jinn.

Attacks by a named-jinn on someone already dependent are inter-
preted as the result of some act that incurred the rage of the jinn.
Most often the jinn's rage is said to be brought on by his follower's
failure to obey one of his commands. The follower may have neglected
to w^ the appropriate color or to have burned the appropriate incense
on schedule. He may have failed to sponsor a promised ceremony, or
he may have tried to postpone a sacrifice. More generally, he may not
have Jived up to the standards of propriety expected of the followers
of a Ijinn. Tbt point to be emphasized is that the follower had dis-
pleased his jinn and **the jinn— they are not like human beings— do not
go in for any nonsense.**
I

Therapeutic Theory

There are a number of possible remedies for a person who is struck
by aljinn. The purpose of these remedies, according to Westermardc
(1926(1): 324), is to drive the enemy out. In fact, this is only partialty

true. There seem to be two basic approaches to the cure of victims of

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158

THE HAMADSHA

the jnun. One of these is to drive the jinn out permanently, but the
other is to establish some sort of a "working relationship" with him.
The first approach — exorcism, properly speaking — ^is considered by the
French classicist Jeanmaire as characteristic of those countries in which
the possessing spirit is considered evil; the second is to be found in
Nordi Africa, the Sudan, and among the ancient Greeks.

n semble qa'on puisse valablement caract£riser k processus en observant
qu'l h difference de rexorcisme proprement dtt, tel quil se pradque dans
un milieu o& la possession est con^nise oooune I'effec de Tintrusion d*un
esprit maMfident par nature et oh rexorcisme tend, par suite, a rexpulsion
de ce principe mauvais pour produire la d^livrance du sujet, la methode de
traitement appliquee ici [in North Africa and the Sudan] vise moins a la
suppression des etats affectifs et delirants qui resultent de I'etat dc posses-
sion (suppose ou suggcrc) qu'a Icur transformation par elimination du fac-
teur depressif et a leur utilisation en vue de realiser un equiiibre nouveau
par une sorte de symbiose avec Tesprit posscsseur devenu esprit procecteur
et par une normalkation, sous forme de transe provoqu6e, de Vim de ciise.
( 1951 : 12 1 ; quoted from Jeanmaire 1949)

In Morocco, both exorcism and the establishment of a symbiotic re-
lationship with a jinn are popular. Although no hard and fast rule can
be established, it appears that most often exorcism {^azima, lit. incan-
tation) is employed when a peison is attacked by an unnamed jinn,^
and the establislunait of a symbiotic relationship is effected when one
is attacked by a named-jinn (cf. Westermardc 1926(1): 155-156). I
would suggest, further, that the two modes of possession and their treat*
ment corre^nd to different psychic states. Possession by an unnamed
jinn is prolrably representative of one psychic condition or dynamic
process, and possession by a named-jinn is representative of another.

While the tJamadsha, as well as the Gnawa, Jilala, and adepts of
similar confintemities are sometimes called to treat the victims of un-
named jnun, and while they are often successful in such cases, they are
primarily concerned with the treatment of victims of named-jnun.
They establish or reestablish a working relationship between the patient
and his jinn. I do not mean to imply that the Ijamadsha consciously
decide to treat one man because he is known to be the victim of a
named-jinn and not to treat another because he was attacked by an
unnamed jinn. Rather, the Hamadsha are called on to treat a patient
because it is believed that that patient was attacked by 'Aisha Qandisha,

"The verb wra*, to overcome, to throw to the ground, means also to exorcise,
ks basic meaning is indicative of the permanent expulsion of the jinn in ezordsm.

I THE THEORY OF THERAPY 159

Sidi Hammu, or some other jinn over whom the Hamadsha exercise
control. Sometimes the Hamadsha are invited to perform when it is
not certain who attacked the patient. Since a hadra is expensive, these
trial and error cures are quite infrequent. When they do occur, there
are invariably other causes for the invitation. Even in cases where the
jinn is known to be 'Aisha Qandisha or Sidi Hamniu, other, cheaper
cures such as a pilgrimage or attendance at a public ceremony are
sometimes tried first and found to be successful. It is my impression
that often such cures are not of long duration. The patient will have a
relapse, and this ultimately necessitates an invitation to one of the
brotherhoods.

The major difference between exorcistic and symbiotic cures is that
exorcistic cures are one-shot affairs and s\TTibiotic cures are continuous.
The patient, in the case of a symbiotic cure, is incorporated into a cult,
and, as a member of that cult he must go through "curing" periodically.
The exorcistic cures are much simpler. They may involve nothing
more than placing a little tar in the victim's nostrils and other body
orifices, bathing him in water endowed with baraka, or burning incense
over him. Often, a Koranic teacher or an exorcist will incant verses
from the Koran over the victim until the jinn leaves him. Sometimes
sacrifices are required. These sacrifices may be conceived cither as a
gift (hadiyya) to the jinn or as an ^ar — literally, shame; "an act \\'hich
intrinsically implies the transference of a conditional curse for tlic pur-
pose of compeUing somebody to grant a request" (Westermarck
1926(1): 518). Or they may involve the ritualized preparation of special
food such as a chicken cooked without salt (massus), which is fed to
the patient (that is, to the jinn witliin him). Both sacrifices and the eat-
ing of special foods (dyafa) are not restricted to exorcistic cures; they
are often part of the symbiotic cures as well.

SYMknonc Cures

The first step in the symbiotic cure is to establish the identity of the
jinn who has struck or possessed the patient. This may be accomplished
informally, if there is some evidence that a particular jinn has struck
the patient. The evidence is often circumstantial.

Q. was about 14 years old when he was first struck by a jinn [imidrub].
His familv had recendv moved to Moulav Idriss to find work and were
staying with his sister. Q. laughed at a group of Sidi "^Ali's followers who
were performing in the street. He claims that he had never heard the

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THE ^AMADSHA

^amadsha before. The mofnent he laughed^ he was stricken with a paralysis
of the lower limbs. His sister immediately understood that 'Alsha Qandisha
had struck him, and invited in the ^amadsha to perform the Ijodra for her
brother. First a sacrifice— probably a goat— was made, and then the l^amad-
sha danced for Q. Q. too began to dance and to slash his head. He has
been a follower of Sidi ^Ali ever since, and considets himself to be de-
pendent ifmnoali] on 'Aisha Qandisha.

Identification may also result from a dream at the time of the jinn's
attack or shortly afterward.

M., who had been a mcmlicr of the Miliana, a brotherhood whose members
play with and eat fire, reported the following dream which converted him
to the Hamadsha and was responsible for his becoming a follower of ^A.isha
Qandisha. "1 was sleeping. Lalla *Aisha grabbed me by the neck and threw
me to the ground. This happened three times. [M. had the dream on three
consecutive nights.] When I dumged over to the ^amadsha, I got better*
fAlsha told me, 'Either you work for me, or Ffl have your neck.' 'God is
my wimess,* I cried out with all my might. But there was nothing to be
done. I was sick the next day. My whole body was sick, I could not walk.
My wife brought me this black chemise and this red turban. [These are the
colors of 'Aisha Qandisha.] Then 1 felt better." M. danced the hadra on the
dlird day and slashed his head. " *Ajsha asked me to work for her [per-
form the hadra] for the rest of my life. I will always work for Lalla
^Aisha."

Often the victim of a jinn travels to a saint's tomb and waits there for
a dream which will reveal the cause of his illness.

If there is neither circumstantial evidence nor oneiric evidence for
the identity of the jinn, the patient may be taken to the ceremonies of
the Gnawa, the Hamadsha, the Jilala, or other popular brotherhoods —
ceremonies held for other people — to see whether or not he responds to
their music. This is one of the most common diagnostic methods in the
shantytowns of Aleknes, where there arc ceremonies almost nightly.
Attempts to identify the patient's jinn are often made during these
ceremonies; his ear is pulled until the jinn speaks. Here, suggestions
play an important role.

F., a girl of 7 or 8, was struck in the tongue by a jinn, so that every time
she wanted to talk her tongue would loU bttck and she would remain speech-
less. It was thought that ^Alsha Qandisha was perhaps respondble for diis,
and F. was taken to a ^amad^ ceremony given by a neighbor who had
been blinded by 'Aisfaa. F. vne placed in a sniall room opening out onto the

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY

161

court where the Hamadsha were performing and was generally ignored.
After the Hamadsha had performed for ahuost an hour, the muqaddim came
in to see how she vns doing. (He was excited bat not in trance.) F. had
not responded to any of the ri^s that had been played.

Following is an ezceipt fiom my notes, taken at the ame: F. looked at
me curiously. Her e3res were widenopen, popping. Her locos seemed out of
control; her pupils rolled i&om ade to side. Her gestures, especially with
her hands, were clumsy: she would reach out too far in front of her for an
object. She seemed disoriented. Her bodv and eye movements were "sexy,"
in the way hysterics tend to be sexy. (I found this surprising in such a
young girl.) F. would occasionally lean toward one of several other girls
of about her own age who were seated near her, and rub cheeks with her;
she would then kiss the girl, or slap her, or both — there was no way of
predicting which. The ItAe girl's modier, who was watching, would push
F. away when she slapped her daughter, but would ignore F. otherwise.

The muqaddim came in unexpectedly. Suddenly he pulled F.*8 ears very
hard. She was pained and resisted a little. He cried out: "Leave her! Leave
her! L^ve her alone! Let her be free!'* The muqaddim then banged his head
against the terrified child, whose eyes were popping out. He had not
banged her head very hard; it was more of a rubbing movement. He then
spit into her mouth several times. He crossed her arms and squeezed her
fingers tightly until it hurt her. He cried out again: "Leave! Leave, leave,
leave her! Let her be free!" F. sat back terrified and wide-eved. She looked
at me and the others uncomprehendingly, her pupils rolling around. Oc-
casionaHy her hands tightened spasmodically; I was told that from time to
time hbr hands had become paralyzed before she was brought to the cere-
mony. The muqaddim returned to the dance floor as abruptly as he had
appeared, and F. sat back, ignored, for a few minutes. Ten minutes after
the mi^qaddim's two-minute treatment she got up and walked out into ihe
court to watch the dancing. Then she disappeared and was not seen agutL
I imagine she had gone to sleep.

F. did not dance and had not shown any particular response to the music
of the Hamadsha. A few days later I met her mother and was told that
she was in much the same condition. Two months later I saw the mother
again and was told that F. was better. She had received no further treat-
ment m the interim. Even though ^e had not responded to any of the
ril^ 'ASsha Qandisha was considered responsible for her iUneas, and it was
not unreasonable to expect that F. would become a devotee of die
madshi^ and a follower of the camel-footed she-demon.

Sometimes the victim of a jimi is taken to the muqaddim of one of
the lodd brotherhoods, who will try to discover the jinn's Identity by
reading or chanting words from the Koran over him. Incense may be
burned. Often the mnqaddim will ymk at the patient's ears or, i£ he

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THE 9AMAD8HA

is a IJamdushi, will knock his head against the patient's head. Once
slashed, the head of a Qamdushi is considered to be greatly endowed
with baraka and to have powerful influence over the )nun. The muqad-
dim also may take the patient to the place where he was first attacked,
and he may even sacrifice a chicken or some other sacrificial victim
there. When the patient sees the blood of the sacrifice, he— or his jinn
— becomes excited and begins to speak.

Since the ceremonies are expensive, shorter trial performances are
sometimes given, especially if no regular ceremonies are scheduled in
the neighborhood, in the countryside, where the ceremonies are less
frequent, one of the musicians may visit the patient and play various
ribs on the ganbii to find the rib to which the patient responds.

H. was struck by a jinii. A musician who played the ganbri was invited to
her house and played all of the ribs he knew over her until he learned
which one was to die likmg of her jinn. This took nearly three days. When
the apprc^riate rib was found, the ^amadsha were called in to perform the
hadra.

One of the commoner ways of identifying an attacking jinn is to call
in a tatti^y or exordst-seer, many of whom are women.^^ Although
these seers appear to be most closely associated with the Gnawa and
the Jilala — ^for example, a talla* must sponsor a ceremony for the Gnawa
and another for the Jilala cvcrv year — the seers in Meknes are by now
also associated with the Hamadsha, the most active of the brotherhoods.
The talla' attempts to identify the jinn by either mechanical or oracular
divinatnrv practices. The most popular of the mechanical methods em-
ployed in Meknes involves casting cowrie shells and "reading" from
the pattern in which they fall. I do not know to what extent die rules
for reading the shell-patterns are formulated and to what extent the
reading is simply a theatrical device to add authority to the seer's words.

In the oracular divinations, the talla^ bums incense and inhales the
fumes. Then, in what would seem to be a state of partial dissociation,
he b^;ins to mumble often incomprehensible words and phrases. These
utterances are usually higiily interspersed with the names of jnun and
saints. Finally the seer stops and informs the patient that he is possessed
of such-and-such a jinn and must follow the jinn's commands. These may
involve visiting a saint, burning special incense, or inviting the Gnawa,

'^Aldioueh the talla' is sometimes referred to as a sbutowaf, he is usually dis-
tinguished tfom the xun-of •4lie-mill seeis are not nccwwrily assodatea widi
one or more brotherhoods.

THE THEORY OF THERAPY

163

the Jilalft— or, nowadays, the Qamadshar— to perfonn the t^dia. Often
the talla* will instruct the patient to wear certain colors. The xcmedies
sngmed by the talla' are stereotyped and not unfamiliar to the patient.
It is significant that the seers usually ask no questions. They simply tell
the patient what is wrong. Sometimes the patient will ask the tdla* a
few <juestions, in order to test him, before bringing up the matter at
hand. What the patient seems to desire is an authoritative diagnosis and
sugge^on for treatment Once again the element of suggestion is
strong.

It is difficult to determine whether or not these seers believe com-
pletely in what they are doing. I personalty had little contact with
them ^nd am only able to su^^est timt even die least sincere are, while
performing a divination, convinced of its efficacy and its truth. They
appeal to put themselves into an extraordinary psychic state, perhaps
one of partbl dissociation, in which they give, not totally free reign
to tiie^r associations, but limited reign. This procedure may be called
directed free associaUon, The extent to which a talla* in this partial^
dissoc^ted state is more sensitive to the needs of his dient remains an
open (Question.

Perhaps, phenomenologically speaking, it is irrelevant to refer to an
individual in this state in terms of bad faith. In fact, "suspended dis-
bdief may well be one of its essential characteristics. To what extent
the seers are sincere and have faith in their powers when they are not
dissociated is another question, and must be answered on individual
bases. Certainly their close ties with a team of performers, their well-
recognized greed, and their highly streotyped responses suggest an
element of self-interest in their behavior. Most Moroccans consider
them charlatans but will not hesitate to use them in a time of crisis. As
constituent elements in the total therapeutic process — a process which
is often highly successful — the seers cannot be dismissed as entirely
ineffective.

Having established the identity of the attacking jinn, it is then neces-
sary to discover what, in fact, the jinn wnnts from his victim. Often the
jinn's demands follow directly from its identity; the jinn is asking the
usual, well-known things it asks of all its followers. The vkdm must
wear special colors, bum special incense, and dance to particular ri^
Often he must make a sacrifice to the jinn and sponsor a ceremony of
one of the popular brotherhoods. If the person is struck by 'Aisha
Qandisha, a pilgrimage to Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad, with a stop-off
at *Aisha's grotto with a red or black sacrificial chicken, may be neces-
sary. Frequently the pilgrimage may be followed by a sponsored badra.

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THE HAMADSHA

either in front of Sidi *Ali*s or Sidi Ahmed^s mausoleum or, more com-
monly, at home.

In some instances, the demands of the jinn are not known. A seer or
the muqaddim of a team who knows the jinn's rih will be consulted.
The talla^ who receives a kickback from the team he recommends, or
the muqaddim who is anxious to have his team perform, will usually
suggest that the jinn requires the ^ra and a sacrifice.

a boy of 8 or 9 who lives with his mother and brother in Sidi Baba, was
strack by a jinn. He fell into a mudhole in convulsions, and when he re-
covered, his right hand was partially paralyzed. The following day, while
he was at work in the public ovens where he is an apprentice, he suddenly
picked some red-hot coals and, squeezing them in his hand, announced
that it was necessary to call in the Hamadsha and that he should be taken

•

to a ncarbv spring. He then released the coals, which were too hot for
anyone else to touch; he had shown no signs of pain and suffered no burns.
In the afternoon he was taken to the spring bv the muqaddim of a local
Hamadsha team. It was assumed that *ATsha Qandisha had struck him there.
Although I was not present at the spring, I was told that die muqaddim
was unsuccessful in learning die demands of die jinniyya. He evidently
pulled the boy's ears, rubbed mud from the spring on him and his modier,
and knodced his head against A. It was finally decided to give a trial per-
formance of die hadra. Since A's modier was verv"^ poor and dqiended on
her son, a short hadra was performed in one of Sidi Baba's squares. Dona-
tions from all the neighbors of the child's mother were made. These paid
for the team, and some money was put awav for the sacrifice, which was
considered necessary. The hadra was performed, and the little boy entered
a light trance and attempted to hit his head first with a knife which was
taken away from him and dien with his shoe. He danced off to the dde and
was generally ignored. After about five minutes the music stopped, and the
hoy fell to the ground.

Following is a desciiptioii by my field assistant of what I was unable to
see fnrdier back in die crowd (note the way he refers to tlic possessed boy
by the name of the possessing jinniwa, *Aisha): . . The boy's mother
watched the dancers. She herself did not dance. She was dressed in black.
The sick l)ov danced hitting his head. I found this curious. Yesterday I saw
his hand parah /ed, and today he is hitting his head with the very same hand.
The hand is perfectly normal. . . . When the music stopped, the boy fell
down. An old man took tlic boy by the hand and made an abd [squeezed
die right hand of the boy with his own in a solemn oath]. In making the
ahd, he tried to talk to *Aisha. ^Aisha did not want to speak. *Aisha made
only gestures. It is the boy who makes die gestures, but it is in fact 5Aisha
who makes them. The old man asked *A&ha what she wanted. 'If you want
a sacrifice,' he commanded, 'tell me what kind you want.' *Alsha beat her

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY

165

chest. *Leave the Htde boyi* die old man commanded. 'Why do you attack
him? Why don't you atcadc somecme else?' 'ATsha beat her chest again. The
old man said, 'I ask vou in the name of God and Sidi "^Ali to tell me what
you want. Or leave forever.' *Aisha said no. She moved her hand across her
chest. *If you want a sacrifice,' the man continued, 'do not hesitate. We are
ready to make it.' The bov said no. The Haniadsha burned more incense.
They moved the [right] hand of the sick boy over the brasier. Then the
man ordered the boy to be taken to the public oven. I do not think the
jnmiyya accepted the sacrifice."

Before the bov was taken to the oven, one of the team members, who
claims to be a sharif, a descendant of the Prophet, spit into the boy's mouth
several times, massaged his hands, and said a prayer (fatha) over him.
1 believe that there was more mention of a sacrifice than my field assistant
reported. One of the men distinctly suggested a he-goat. The boy himself
was in a dreamy, semi-conscioiis state. OccastonaUy he would beat his hand
against his ch^ Everyone seemed eager to accq>t this as an i n d i c ation
of 'Ajsha's wiU. (It shoidd be noted that a few momhs earlier, A.*s brother
was attacked by 'Alsha and had a performance of the ^amadsha sponsored
for him. A. is said to have been jealous of his brother.) Several ^ys later,
A.'s hand was still weak, although now he could move it. It was assumed
that he would remain in this condition until a sacrifice had been made.
No sacrifice was made, to my knowledge, because A.'s mother was too f>oor.
A.'s condition improved slightly in the following months. He appeared at
other Ijlamadsha performances and danced tlie hadra.^

It is significant here that everyone concerned with the patient was sure
of *Aisha's demands. The problem was simply that of 'Aisha's accepting
the offering. And the question that remains is tliis: To what extent was
*Aisha's "refusal" indicative of the boy's desire for prolonged attention
and to what extent was it indicative of the boy's knowledge of his
mother's inabiUty to make the sacrifice and of his own inability to take
no for an answer? I was never able to estabhsh suflkicnt contact with
A. or his mother to explore and clarify this. Nevertheless, his case
again calls attention to the role of suggestion in the diagnostic process.

Once the identity of the attacking jinn and its demands arc estab-
lishedj it is then necessary to satisfy ttee demands if the patient is to
be cmed of his symptoms. The mamfiest aim of the cure is the elim-
ination of symptoms, and not the permanent expulaon of die jinn. The
therapieutic process, however, is conceptualized, often confusedly, in
terms of the jinn. The jinn must be placated, since the patient, wit-
tingly or unwittingly, has incurred its wrath. This placation, then, is

"The question of shanng expenses for a badia is discossed in Chapter Ten.

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THE 9AMAOSHA

accomplished by complying with the jinn's commands. If the patient
is possessed or partially possessed, the elimination of symptoms neces-
sarily involves die expulsion of the jinn. If the patient has been struck,
the cure usuaUy involves die jinn's taking possesion of die padent and
then leaving him. In neither case is the break complete. Although the
jinn leaves the padent, it does not abandon him. It

remfltng Wldl hun^

and so long as the padent obeys it, the jinn will do him no harm. If,
however, die padent breaks any of the jinn's commands, then the jinn
attacks him. It appears that cure is effected by the establishment of a
reladonship between the padent and his named-jinn. The padent be-
comes a follower of the jinn and remains always dependent on it. This
reladonship, as we have seen, is by no means a negative one. The jinn is
a support for the padent.

The Explanation op the Cure

There are several divergent and often confusing theories as to how
exactly the cures are brought about. Usually it is said that either Sidi
*Ali or Sidi Ahmed or both, as intermediaries to God, arc ultimately
responsible for the cures. If the patient was struck by *AYsha Qandisha,
it is sometimes added that Sidi ^Ali commanded ^AYsha to leave her
victim alone. I have been told b\' the followers of Sidi *Ali that their
saint not only commands ''Aisha Qandisha but also Sidi Ahmed, and
that sometimes he will instruct Sidi Ahmed to order 'Aisha to leave the
patient. Sidi Ahmed's followers are not so anxious to relinquish ultimate
control to Sidi 'Ali, and they talk of an agreement (^ar) that Sidi Ah-
med made with 'Ai'sha Qandisha, wherein 'Aisha agreed to keep out
of Sidi Ahmed's way. Sidi Ahmed, thereby, is not without his own
effect on the camel-footed she-demon.**

The most £requent cxplanadon of the cures involves the notion of
baiaka. The baraka of Sdi ^AM and Sidi Ahmed, which is lodged in the
saints' paraphernalia, in their descendants, and in some of their follow-
ers at least some of the time, is considered to be the cause of the cures.
In the case of the saindy paraphernalia— die tomb, the water of the
^Ayn Kabir, and objects sold by the saints^ fami K e s a nd the saints'
descendants, the bardca is passed direcdy to the padent, and in the proc-
ess of transference is transformed, as we have seen, from a highly con-

* On several occasions I have been toM that the Hamad^ cure die posseflBed
hv allowing the possessing jinn to enter themselves. The curers, who are in a
special relationship to the possessins jinn, are not bothered by ic This explana-
tion, xghkh zeMnmles endaaat&nit in the Zar cues, is miwittl among die Qamad-
she (cf.Leiris 1958).

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THE THEORY OF THERAPY

167

tagi^us potentializing force to a noncontagious potential or actual state
of being. The baraka may be sufficient to eliminate the patients symp-
tom^ but it is rare in those cases where the patient has been attacked
by i named-jinn. Usually, in such cases, the baiaka seems to be tians-
f omjied into a potential state of health which will be actualized only if
die ^tient follows a regime. The r^rime is the command of the jinn

with the ^amadsha themselves, explanation of the therapeutic proc-
ess is more complex. In the first place, the bacaka of the saints enables
the adepts, the devotees, and the patients to perform the t^idra, which
is pldising not only to the saints but to the jnun as well It also enables
the ghiyyata to play the various ribs which draw the jinn into the
patient and then eaqpid it. Finally, it enables some of the perfbrmos not
only] to enter trance but also to slash their heads; the blood from these
wounds is again pleasing to the jnun. The baraka of the saints is, then,
a potentializing force enabling the adepts, the devotees, and patients to
entei^ an extraordinary state (hal) in which they all^-in varying degrees
— have the ability to pass on the baraka of the saints. This bardca is the
forc^ behind the cure.

While it is sometimes said that the follower of a saint— an adept—
possesses baraka which he is able to transfer, just as the descendant of
a saint can pass on baraka, it is usually claimed that to do this the adept
must! be in an extiaordinary state. I have heard this contradicted in
theo]|etical discussions, but I have known of only two or three instances
in which baraka was said to have been transferred to a patient for cura-
tive purposes by a saint's follower who was not in tnmce. (In these few
instai^ces, it was the moqaddim of one of the urban zawiyas— a disinter-
ested party in the transfer of wealth— who passed his baiaka to the
patient.) The entranced state, then, appears to be a key to the cure.
In this state, the adept may pass on his saint's baraka by massaging the
potiegt, by hitdi^ his head against the patient's head, by smearing
blood from his own wounds onro the patioit, and by other similar acts
which are discussed in the next chapter. Often the mere presence of an
adept; in trance is sufficient for the transfer of baraka. Then, roo, the
patient and other devotees who are also in entranced states are said to
posse^ the baraka of the saint and may tlieinselves have a curative
effecip Often they, as well as the adepts, will recite prayers and invo-
catioips for participants during pauses in the dance. These invocations
are frequently recited in an entranced state, and they are considered
especially effective.

To summarize, baraka may be transferred either direcdy or indi-

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168

THE 9AMADSHA

reedy to the patient. In either case, if the patient is the victim of a
named-jinn or jinniyya, this baraka is not usually sufficient to effect a
cure, but rather puts the patient in a state of potential cure. The cure
is then effected by the patient's following a regime pleasing to the jinn
or jinniyya. One important element in this regime is the l^dra, which
permits pattent and curers alike to enter trance. Again, the saint's
baraka is ocmsidered the potentializing force behind the bs^dia. This
process is ilhisttated In Figure 9.

BARAKA

(ADEPT)

PATIENT

POTENTIAL OR ACTUAL CURE

ADEPT

(PATIENT)

POTENTIAL FOR HADRA

TRANCE

^ (HAL) \^
SLASHIN6-U1 DBA- POSSESSION

PLACATION OF JINN OR JINNIYYA

ALLEVIATION OF SYMPTOMS

FIGURE 9.

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The
Pilgrimage

There are two piindpal ^amadsha liciuls that are designed, among
other things, to cure die sick. The first of these, the pilgrimage to the
tomb^ of Sidi 'Ali ben Qamdush and Sidi Ahmed Dghughi, is of more
general scope and appeal than the second, the performance of the b^dra.
Although it has certain distinctive features, particularly with respect to
*A&ha Qandisha, it is not dissimilar to pilgrimages to most of the other
marabouts in Morocco and elsewhere in the Maghreb. It is by no means
restricted to adepts or devotees of the badta, nor is its efficacy limited
to those suffering from attacks of the jnun. The l^amadsha ^dra, too,
resembles the performances of other popular brotherhoods in Morocco;
but it, too, differs from them all in certain outstanding respects. Al-
though its efficacy, theoretically, is not restricted to cases involving the
jnun, Its prindpai therapeutic aim is the cure of the jmn-struck and the
jinn-possessed.

The pilgrimage to a saint's tomb is referred to in Moroccan Arabic
as a Tiyara^ a visit, and must not be confused with the hayiy or pil-
grimage to Mecca, which is required of all good Muslims. Although the
ziyara and the hajj have certain features in common, neither the i^-
madsha nor other Moroccans of their background seem willing to draw
any comparison between the two. For the Muslim, there is an absolute
distinction between a visit to a local sanctuary, no matter how powerful
the saint involved, and a pilgrimage to Mecca, the seat of Islam. To the
non-Muslim scholar, however, the structural parallels are of some sig-
nificance.
I

^2Jiy»a u abo used to refer to the offerings one leaves «t a saints tomb.

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THE JEjlAMADSHA

In the most general terms, the purpose of a pilgnmage to a saint's
tomb is to obtain the baraka of the saint. Often the pilgrim hopes to
have a dream in \\ hich the saint appears and gives instruction as to how
to deal with his complaints. While visits to saints' tombs, especially local
ones, are sometimes made only to receive a saint's blessing, they are
usually made with a more explicit purpose. The pilgrim goes to the
saint's tomb to ask the saint to intercede with God for him. He is
anxious to obtain something: a child, a spouse, business success, a favor-
able verdict at court, poetic inspiration, the cure of an illness, the alle-
viation of the symptoms of an attack by a jinn, or simply a change in
fortune. The saint, who can do no wrong, will intercede for him; the
success or failure of the mission is dependent upon the not-to-be-ques-
tioned will of God. Some saints, however, are particularly effective for
specific things (cf. Voinot 1948). In and around Aieknes, for example,
Sidi Said is considered espcciallv helpful for coughs and chest diseases;
Moulav Ahmed Shibli for fevers; Sidi Abdullah l-Gazzar, the butcher,
for female alopecia; Sidi Sliman Mula 1-Kifan, the master of the cave, for
rheumatism and other arthritic pains; and Sidi Abdullah ben Ahmed for
the insane (hmeq). Not all saints are specialists, though, and even
among those who are, there is considerable variation in their reputa-
tions. It is impossible, strictly speaking, to claim that one saint has more
baraka than another; but, nonetheless, the saints do appear to fall into
a hierarchy with respect to their importance and efficacy (Dermen-
ghem 1954:21). Since the exact relationship between the saint's inter-
cessionary power with God and his own baraka is not clear, no one
can say that the one or the other is responsible for the success of a
pilgrimage. But while this distinction may be of some theoretical sig-
nificance to the non-Muslim, it is of little concern to the Muslim, since
all things ultimately derive from God, The pilgrimage to Sidi ^Ali's and
Sidi Ahmed's tombs are still more complicated, because they actually
involve a stop at *Ai"sha Qandisha's grotto. Similar cults are found at
other mausoleums as well (cf. Brunei 1955:325 et seq.).

Although a pilgrimage to the mausoleums of Sidi 'Ali and Sidi Ahmed
and to the grotto of 'Aisha Qandisha is considered particularly thera-
peutic for barrenness, children's diseases, and illnesses caused by ^Aisha,
its value is by no means restricted. The pilgrimage is said to be one of
the most powerful in Morocco, and it is not unusual for visitors, both
Arab and Berber, to come from as far as Tetouan, Marrakech, or even
Agadir to obtain some of the saints' blessing. The majority of pilgrims,
however, come from the nearby countryside and from Meknes. Al-

THE PILGRIMAGE

171

though pilgrims iwm Fez arc not unusual, Fez seems to fall just outside
the area of greatest devotion to the J^amadslia saints.

Pilgrimage AcnvmES

The pilgrimage ro tlic Hamadsha saints has a number of possible
stop-offs: the mausoleum of Sidi 'AH and Sidi Ahmed, the 'Ayn Kabir
at Bcni Rachid, the grotto to 'Aisha Qandisha, and the mausoleums of
the lesser village saints. It is not incumbent on a pilgrim to make all of
these stops: he is free to visit any one of the shrines without stopping
at the others. Once he has made a stop, however, he must follow cer-
tain rules of behavior, which can best be understood as marks of respect
to the saints and to ^Aisha Qandisha. He is also free to initiate certain
activities at these stops — activities which, once initiated, are also subject
to certain rules. The structure of the pilgrimage is not dissimilar to the
hagiographic legends: there are a number of component themes which
the narrator is free to recount or not to recount, but once he has
initiated a theme he must follow it through to the best of his knowl-
edge. The thematic components of the legends do not usually serv^e a
straightforward etiological function. They are not usually explanations
for ritual activities, but they do reflect their relative importance and
tiieir possible interrelationships. The components of the pilgrimage are
summarized in Table 4.

While it is theorcticallv possible to make only one or two stops, most
pilgrims, who arc anxious to obtain the maximum benefit from their
trip, visit both mausoleums, the two shrines to "^Aisha Qandisha, and the
*Ayn Kabir. They rarely visit the tombs of the other village saints. The
pilgrims may spend a few hours or a few days in the two villages. They
deep in the courtyard or the tomb room, and bring their own food.
A trip that lasts a single day is the most common, and one that lasts a
day and a night is considered ideal. Prolonged visits for weeks and even
months are very rare at Beni Rachid and Ben Ouarad; they are not un-
tt some fluictuaries, such as Sidi Ra^ and Moulay Biahim
near jVfanakedL The Hamadsha shrines are not havens for beggars,
wandering mendicants, prosdcotes, and other social outcasts. No pro-
vision is made for them.

Decisions to perform optional ritnal activities are based on individual
considerations. The nature of the pilgrim's complaint plays a role.
Henna, for example, is commonly smeared on pilgrims suffering from
aching bones. The most important consideration is economic. Most of

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TABLE 4

THE UTUAL COMPONENTS OP THE PUXaUMiUSB

Required Conduct

Optional Conditct

Mausoleum

im 'AU, Sidi Ahmed,
Sidi l-Ifafyany other saints)

Purification
Removal of shoes
Kissing portals
Girciiiiiffimbiihtioii of

and kissing four sides of

tomb
Sitting near tomb
Redtadon of f atiha or other

Koranic verses

Purification

Alms (or payment)

Purification
Removal of shoes
Alms

Placing head under catafalque
Sleeping (and dreaming) in tomb room
Lighting candle
Taking earth

Receiving blessing from muqaddim of
mausoleum or another descendant of

the saint
Sacrifice (as ^r or gift)
Sponsoring hadra
Performing ^adra

^Ayfi Kabir

Drinking water
Bathing
Bottling water

Receiving blessing from mucjaddim of

spring
Sacrifice (as ^ or gift)
Sponsoring hadra
Performing hadra
Receiving blessing from holy fool

{majdud)

Shrines to "-Aisha Qandisha

Sitdi^ (and [Mresstng head against root
system) in grotto at Beni Rachid

Tying rag or remnant of clothes to roots
at grotto

Leaving amulets

Taking earth

Smearing earth on body

Smearii^ henna on body

Burning incense

Receiving blessing from muqaddim
Sacrifice (as "ar or gift)
Sponsoring hadra
Performing hadra

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THE PILGRIMAGE 173

the pilgrims are poor, and most of the optional activities arc expensive.
A blessing from the miiqaddim of n shrine or a saint's descendant costs
about a dirham; a package of candles 60 francs; a chicken for sacrifice
from 5 to 10 dirhams; a she-goat about 60 dirhams; a he-goat from 45
to 75 dirhams; a e\\ c over 60 dirhams; a ram over 75 dirhams; a cow
from 150 dirhams; and a bull well over 200 dirhams. The sponsoring of
the hadra varies from 15 to more than 50 dirhams, depending on the
instruments used, the amount of time spent, and the performer's per-
ception of the w ealth of the sponsor. (It has to be remembered that
the average pilgrim spends at least 3 or 4 dirhams for alms, and must
also pay for his transportation to the Jebel Zerhoun.)

The decision to perform one of these optional activities is dependent,
then, on the financial situation of the pilgrim and on the nature and
gravity of his condition. A father whose son is suffering from a para-
lyzed limb \\ ill more readily make a sacrifice than a husband whose
wife complains of rheumatoid pains in her joints. Often, however, the
decision is not made by the individual pilgrim but by a seer (talld*)
whom he has consulted and whose advice he follows. Then again, the
performance of one of the options may not be conceived as a matter
of choice at all, but as a command cither by the saint or 'AYsha Qan-
disha. The command may have been revealed in a dream, or the pilgrim
may simply have the subjective conviction that it is what the saint or
*Aisha desires.

Before making the pilgrimage to the Hamadsha saints— or to any
saint, for that matter — the pilgrim must purify himself. He is not al-
lowed into the sacred confines {hoitn) of the tomb in a polluted con-
dition. He must bathe carefully after having sexual intercourse. A men-
struating woman is not allowed to enter the mausoleum. Usually,
pilgrims will go to the baths the day before their trip and will refrain
from sexual intercourse that night.

The Pilgrimage Sequence

The average pilgrim usually arrives at either Beni Rachid or Beni
Ouarad with several members of his family. If he plans to give a sacri-
fice, he will often bring the animal or animals with him. The pilgrim
tries to arrive early in the morning in order to spend the entire day at
the sanctuaries. Although most pilgrims go to Sidi 'All's mausoleum
first, both because he is considered the more powerful of the two saints
and because taxis, which are the pilgrims' most common means of trans-
portation, usually stop at Beni Rachid, those pilgrims who are msamiad

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174

THE l^AMADSHA

to SIdi Ahmed go directly to Beni Ouarad. It is sometimes said that if
one makes the pilgrimage because of a sick chfld, one should visit Sidi
Ahmed first. The average pilgrim brings provisions, and leaves them in
the counyard of whichever saint he is visiting. If he has brouglic a
sacrificial victim, he gives it to the muqaddim of the sanctuary, who
may sacrifice it for hhn during the course of the visit. The muqaddims,
who are anxious to keep the victim alive to sell, will usually try to per-
suade the pilgrim that giving the animal is sufficient and that there is
no need to slaughter it immediately.

The pilgrim removes his shoes before entering the mausoleum. He
kisses the door jambs, first the right and then the left one, and he may
drop a few coins into the alms box standing just inside the tomb room.
Sometimes he waits to give alms until he is about to leave. Women turn
to the left and walk dockwise around the tomb; men turn to the right
and make a counterclockwise drcumambulation. Both men and women
kiss the four sides of the catafidque. Once the smgle drcumambulation
is completed, the pilgrim sits dovnwwomen to the left of the entrance,
men to the right— and mumbles a f atba or a few verses from the Koran
that he happens to know. At this time the pilgrim is said to experience
the fear of God (khusM). Occasionally he will experience a trance-
like state which he calls the duU, a term which is also employed for one
level of trance in the l^^idra.

Often, especially if he is sick, the pilgrim will place his head under
the coverings of die catafalque and press it against the tomb in order
to have doser contact with the saint and to glean more of his baraka.
Pilgrims often try to sleep in the mausoleum, hoj»ng to have dreams
in which the saint appears and gives them instruction. (It is sometimes
said that the saint is not dead but alive within the sanctuary.) The
dreams — or, better, the saint's appearance — are loosely interpreted.' AH
males in these dreams, especially when wearing white, are said to be
saints. Women are often interpreted as 'Aisha Qandisha. If the dream
is puzzling, the pilgrim may ask the muqaddim of the sanctuary what
it means.

The pilgrim may spend only a few minutes in the tomb, or several
hours. Before leaving, he may light a candle or two, and when he
leaves he usually takes a little earth with him. This earth, which is called

■The extent to which these dreams are stereotyped "diviiie" dreams {chrenuh
tismoi of ancient Greece), and not simply interpreted in a prescribed manner,
is impossible to determine. The element of secondary elaboration cannot be ac-
counted foir; Dodds (1966:107 ec seq.) does not take die Ittttr into due coosid-
eradon in his work on die Greeks.

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I TH£ PILGRIMAGE 175

tuba^ has been placed in the sanctuary by the muqaddim and is said to
contain much baraka. Pilgrims often put it under their pillows to pre-
vent bad dreams or rub it on aching parts of their bodies. Taking the
earth at Sidi Ahmed's tomb is said to commemorate Sidi Ahmed's
throwing tar and then sand in the eyes of the Sudanese guards who
pursued him after he had taken *Aisha Qandisha and the musical in-
struments from the palace of the King of the Sudan. No legend ex-
plains why one takes a little earth from the tomb of Sidi *Ali. The
practice is not restricted to the Hamadsha saints and, in fact, is wide-
spread among both Berbers and Arabs.

The average pilgrim will usually settle down in the courtyard of the
mausoleum after visiting the tomb. He drinks tea, cats a little food, and
often gossips with other pilgrims. He may ask the muqaddim for a
blessing or to arrange for the hadra. The latter is rare, both because the
hadra is expensive and because most pilgrims prefer to sponsor hadras
in their own homes, where they can invite friends and fellow devotees
and thus assure themselves of reciprocal invitations. When he has fin-
ished his meal and is through gossiping, the pilgrim may enter the
tomb again before moving on to the mausoleum of the other saint. If he
is at Sidi Ahmed's tomb, he will usually leave something for *Aisha
Qandisha. He may smear a little of her earth or henna on aching parts
of his body, or even sacrifice a chicken to her. The pilgrim follows the
windmg path through Qelaa to the second saint's tomb and follows the
same procedure there as at the first."*

Usually, before leaving,^ a pilgrim will visit the 'Ayn Kabir. There
he washes his face and hands in the holy water and drinks a little of it.
Some pilgrims will take a bottle of water home with them. Women es-
pecially are apt to pay the muqaddim of the spring a half dirham in
order to use the baths. Often the pilgrims receive blessings from a holy
fool {rmjdub) who has been living in a cave nearby for at least ten
years.^ On very rare occasions, a pilgrim will arrange for a sacrifice
or for the performance of the hadra in front of the 'Ayn Kabu*.

The last stop on the pilgrimage is the grotto of 'Aisha Qandisha in

'Literally, a clod. This word, which begins with an emphatic shoold not be
confused with tuba^ conf ession or repentance.

*Akhoiigfa there are no legends connected widi this roate, it is generally ac-
cepted as the appropriate path to take. Informants state simply that it is the
shortest distance between the two mausoleums. They ahrays stress the fact that
they have taken iL

'If he fiends die night, he sleeps in die mansoleom of the saint he considen die

most powerful.

• It is not unusual to find such fools at saints' tombs; this one is not related tO
the deM:cndancs of Sidi *^Ah and is not from the village of Beni Rachid.

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Beni RacUd. This grotto is viated most frequently by women. Men,
too, visit it, although many of them consider it a place for women and
seem embarrassed by their own visits. The male pilgrim will remove his
shoes, enter the grotto, give something to the maqaddim, and leave.
Women will spend more time there. They press their heads against the
exposed roots of the giant fig tree, rob a Iktle eardi or henna on their
bodies, and fmnigate themselves with incense (black jawf). The henna
and incense are brought by pilgrims and prepared by the muqaddim.
Often the women will tie rags to one of the fig roots as a vow {'ar) to
give a sacrifice if their pilgrimage is successful. They may also leave
amulets prepared by Koranic teachers there. Sacrifices, especially chick-
ens, are not unusual, but the performance of the hadra in the grotto is
rare. When it is performed, the dancers will often imitate pigs and
grovel in the mad.

The pilgrim does not necessarily repeat this cycle of visits if he stays
at Beni Rachid or Beni Ouarad for several days. Usually he will spend
most of his remaining time at the tomb of the saint he considers most
powerful. Often the pilgrim will refrain from sexual intercourse for
several days after his trip to the Hamadsha saints. He may bring back
candles, amulets prepared by the saint*s descendants, and bread that is
also prepared by them. Sometimes he will have to rub himself with or
drink special herbal brews for several days after the pilgrimage.

Hadra and Sacrifices

Both die villages of Beni Rachid and Beni Ouarad, as we have seen,
have teams of ^j^onadsha which perform whenever they are asked by
pilgrims and villageis. Villagers will usually invite a team to their own
houses, and the porformance follows the general lines of the urban cere-
mony. It is held out of doors more often than in the city, especially
when the ceremony is given not to cure an illness but to commemorate
an event such as the naming of a child. Ceremonies sponsored by pil-
grims usually take place in the courtyard of the mausoleum. On rare
occasions they are held in *Aisha Qandisha's grotto or in front of the
*Ayn Kabir. I have never witnessed a hadra sponsored by a pilgrim, and
can only report what I have heard from informants who participated
in them. Village informants complained that the teams no longer per-
formed as weU as they did in the past; the team members are at odds
with one another and their performances reflect this. Urban and shanty-
town informants who were aware of intra-village factionalism also com-
plained about the ceremonies. They did not find the musicians as gifted

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as those of the city; the ceremonies were sloppy and not particnliiiiy
satisfying. AU that the team members wanted, they said, was aumey.
Although I am unable to comment on these criticisins, I bdieve that the
pilgrims missed the intimacy of their own ceremonies, in which their
friends and neighbors participated, and musicians whom th^ knew well
performed. To what extent they missed the authority and competence
of thdr own muqaddim and ghiyyata remains an open question.^

Sadrifices are much more common than the sponsoring of l^dras.
Red, black, or muld-colored (*'seven-colored") chickens are often
sacrificed to *Aisha Qandisha in her grotto. Chickens, as well as goats
and slieep, both male and female, are also sacrificed to the saints. A ram
is considered the "best^ sacrifice. Ideally, the muqaddim slits the throat
of the animal in front of the saint's tomb or in *Alsha*s grotto, foUow-
jng the procedure employed in the slaughtering of all animals. The
meat and skin are then divided among the descendants of the saint,
and a little of the meat may be given to the pilgrims. In fact, the muqad-
dim lisually tries to dissuade the pilgrim from having his animal lolled.
Often, if the muqaddim succeeds, die animal is then sold to pilgrims
who want to give a sacrifice but have not brought one to the village
with them. Through a continued process of resale, the children of the
saint |ire able to maximize their profits.^

Such a sacrifice is referred to as a debUfo, or as an 'or, and must not
be confused with the d^ya, the sacrifice of a sheep on the 'Ayd 1-Kabir
(The, Feast of the Sheep), which commemorates the Abraham and
Ismail story. The dhiya, a yearly duty of all good Muslims, was recog-
nized by all my informants as qualitarively different from sacrifices to
the saints and to *Aislia Qandisha. The element of commemoration is
not present in the latter: they are conceived, as Westermarck (1926(1):
188 et seq.) points out, as either an 'in^ or a gift (hadiyya). A debita is
considered an 'iar when the pilgrim has come with a request, and as a
gift when he comes to thank the saint or 'Aisha Qandisha for granting
a request made earlier. The gift-sacrifice, in fact, generally results horn
a vovj" (*ar) to give an animal if a request is granted. This vow may be
stated in public, or it may simply be a promise to oneself to give the
sacrifice. The pilgrim may symbolically affirm his vow by t3Hing a cloth
to the roots of the giant fig tree in *Aisha's grotto or to the branches of
the fig tree in the urban lodges. Sometimes a first sacrifice is offered,
with the promise of another when the request has been fulfilled.

'A detailed descriptjim oS the |ifldia will be given in Chapter Ten.
•A similar proceaure is folloMred at Moolay Idriss, even at the musem.

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had been struck paralyzed by ^Aisha Qandisha, came to Sidi ^Ali's
mausoleum widi a ram and had it sbughtered in firont of the saint's tomb.
He referred to this sacrifice as an ^ to the saint. He explained that he had
phced himself under the protection of the saint and had asked the saint to
intervene with God and 'Aisha Qandisha on his part. He vowed that if he
were cured, he would make another sacrifice of a ram to the saint. Several
days later — he was still at Sidi *Ali's tomb — his condition improved after
dreaming that the saint released him (ordered him to leave). He bought a
ram from one of the saint's descendants — this ram had been brought by
another pilgrim as a sacrilicc, but had never been killed — and had it sacri-
ficed in front of the tomb as he had promised. This time, he referred to the
sacrifice not as an ^ but as a debiha, and explained that it had been made
in fulfiUment of his first Hn. He added that were he not to make it, he
would incur the anger of the samt and *Alisha Qandisha and would fall ack
again.

While it is possible to distinguish analytically between the sacrifice as
an 'ar and as a hadiyya, it is my impression that in the minds of most
pilgrims who offer a sacrifice this distinction is not so neat. The *ar is
also considered a hB^yysu

Fatima*s PiLGRnvf age

What follows is a verbatim account of ft pilgrimage to the Hamadsha
saints. Fatima*s mother, Fatna, told the story. Fatna, who lives in Sidi
Baba with a son and four daughters, is by bidonville standards a com-
paratively wealthy- woman. Her husband spends most of the year in
France as a worker for a construction company. She is not a Ham-
dushiyya, but she considers herself to be supported (msannad) by Sidi
*AU and has had several of her other children's hair cut in the mauso-
leum of the saint. She attends the annual pilgrimage at Sidi 'Ali when-
ever she can and often watches the Hamadsha's public performances in
front of Sheikh al-Kamal in Meknes. Although she does not consider
herself to be dependent (muwala) on 'Aisha Qandisha, she is afraid of
the she-demon and is worried about beccnning 'Aisha's victim. Never-
theless, she is emphatic about not being a devotee of the Hamadsha,
and she does not want her children to become muhibbin.^

I will tell you about the time I took Fatima to Sidi ^\li. Fatima was 3 years
old then. [Further calculation revealed that Fatima was actually not quite 2.]
It was at harvest time. My husband was back from France. The first sign

'The aocoant was told to my wife.

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of Fatima's illness was her falling down on the spot. She was feverish. She
nearly fainted. Her eyes and her mouth were wide open. She cried and
cried. She kept crying. I was pregnant with Najiya — not the Najiya you
know [one of Fteiui*s dn^teis], bat with the Najiya who died. I was
abouti six months pregnant. [It was established that Fatna had not nursed
Fadma for three months when the girl fell sick. Moroccan women stop
nnrsu^ an ]n£uit the moment they know they are pregnant again. They
believe the milk of a pregnant mother is poisonous. It is said that it is
rendered poisonous by the embryo, who is jealous.] Fadma was sick at
night. I touched her, and she was burning. She w^as sleeping next to me
[along with Fatna's husband and two other children], llie moment she
cried, I took her on my knee and then on mv back and then again on my
knee. She continued to crv a lot. I gave her milk, but she refused it. I gave
her sometliing to eat, but she refused tliat too. Then I knew that Fatima
must be very sick. . . .

Ih the morning 1 decided to go to the fqih [the Koranic teacher]. My
hasbadd said, "No, it is necessary to go to the hospital'* I answered, "So^
it is not an illness for the hospital It is an iUness for the fqih.** Then my
husband let me go. [Fatna*s husband's family lived next door and en-
couraged her to go to the fqih and then, if the fqih was unable to help, to
go to a saint.] I, too, knew diat it was the illness for the fqih and the
saint. When an infant falls sick and has the fever and breathes with diffi-
culty, it is an illness which is for the fqih. But when a child eats and
vomits, when he is sick in the intestines, tlicn it is an illness for the hospital.
Also if he coughs [chokes] when he vomits, it is an illness for the hospital.
I learned to tell them apart from the neighbors. . . .

So, that morning, I went to the fqih. It costs 100 francs. I had not vistisd
that fqih before. One of my neighbors, a woman, had told me to go to that
f qib because he is eqiedally good for children. I went to the house of the
fqih with the ndghbor who recommended hinu I said to him, ''My daughter
is sick. Can you write an amulet for her?" The fqib looked at Fatima who
was feverish, but he did not examine her. [The latter observatum was in
re«;ponse to questions previously asked Fatna about fqihs.] "It is all right.
She will not die." Then he wrote a verse from the Koran. He told me to
put the verse along with some herbs — rue [/x;//], harmal [horfTial], and a
type of absinthe Ishiba] — in a red cloth and liang it from Fatima's neck. He
also gave me another verse of the Koran and told mc to put it in a bowl with

some water, olive oil, and gariic. I was to rub the mixture all over Fadma.
All ovdr her, except the soks of her feet and the palms of her hands. I was
to do this every numiii^ and every night, twice a day, for three days. I
was also to give Fatima a little of it to drink with each application. [Did
the fqib ask 3rou anydiing?] The fqih said absolutely nothing else. You go
to him, really, only to know if the child will live or die. Three days later,
Fatima was still sick.
My mother-in-law said, "Now you must try mine You pound the mint imx>

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a powder and moisten k \ntii water. You put it in a rag and squeeze out
drops into the ears, mouth, and nostrik of the child." I did this to Fadma.
Duraig the three days I foUowed the fqib's instructions, my husband kept
telling me to go to the hospital. My mother-in-law said that we must try
mint. After we had tried it, Fatima was a little better. She was still sick,
though.

Now before having Farima, a neighbor — she was a midwife — dreamed that
I had washed a sheepskin rug in the fountain. The hair of the sheepskin had
been shaved, and it was smooth. After she had the dream, the midwife came
to my house and said, "When you have your child — be it a boy or a girl
— you must take it to Sidi "^AU to have its head shaved by one of the chil-
dren of the saint.'* I was pregnant then with Fadma, and aifter she was bom,
"when, die was forty days old, I took her to Sdi ^Ali, and die muqaddim
[of the mausoleum] shaved her head for 300 francs. Afterward, I said to
him, "If all goes well with my child, I will return in a week's dme with a
chicken for you." Then I went home.

After a week I saw that Fatima was well, and I thought that it was
not worth going back to Sidi ^Ali, not worth spending a lot of money
for a chicken. So I never went to him with the chicken. Now when my
child took sick, I had this point — not having given the chicken — between
my eyes. The muqaddim had shaved Fatima's head in the saint's mausoleum,
right next to the tomb, and 1 had not returned with the chicken 1 had
promised him. When Fatima fdl dck, my husband said to me— and all the
neighbors said to me-Hhat it was because of the chicken. Two days after
I tried the mint, I went to Sidi ^AIL

There is one more thing. On the day I gave Fatima mint, I went to Moulay
Abdullah ben Ahmed [a saint who is buried a mile from Fatna's house].
I left the verse of the Koran the fqih had given me there. Moulay Abdullah
ben Ahmed is where one takes people who are crazy. I was walking by
with Fatima on my back, I was on mv way to the madina to shop when I
passed the mausoleum and decided to leave the verses there. When a fqih
writes verses of the Koran, and they do not work, we leave them in a
sainfs tomb. If the verses work, you must always keep them. But when
they do not work, you leave them in a saint's mausoleum because you can-
not just throw them anywhere. Pferhaps someone will walk on them and
dirty diem. There is always a shelf made of earth in a saint's tomb where
you leave them. They are said to be thrown away and will not work again,
not even from the saint's tomb.

Now then, everybodv was saying. "It is because of the chicken that Fatima
is sick." This was always between my eves. Fverx bodv said, "Go back to
Sidi 'Ali so that God can help you." The woman who had taken nie to
the fqih said, "Go to Sidi ^Ali." And although Fatima was a little better,
my mother-in-law said, "I know that unless you give a chicken to the saint,

^Fatna does not mendon diat her child was sick at this time.

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Fatima's sickness will last forever." The day after I used mint, I said to my
husband that I was going. I did not do anything for Fatima that day. My
husband bought three chickens. He agreed to niy going, but he said, "You
must find a neighbor woman to go with you. I will pay for her trip."
[Fatna's husband, having worked in France, seems to have considered him-
self too modem to go with Fatna.] I tried my neighbors, but tfaey^ were all
hvay* So my husband had to come. He bought the chickens the day before
the ctip. He ordered a tud. For Sidi Ahmed, he bought a bkck and white
chicken; for Sidi *Ali, a red and white chicken; and for ^ATsha, a chicken
that was all red. Also, on the day before the trip, my husband went to the
baths. I could not go because Fatima was very sick. I did not want to leave
her. I washed ver\' well and heated water for it at home. I washed well
because it is not good to go to a saint when vou are dirty. My husband
bought a box of candles. There were 24 in the box. We also took some-
thing with which we could cut off a piece of Fatima's clothing to hang on
^Aisha's tree. You say that on that piece of clothing, you have left the ill-
ness. [Did you wear any special clothes?] We put on our best clodiing.
We all had on our newest dodiing accept for our jallabas. I put new
dotfaes on Fatima too. You should wear good clothes to the saint; They
should be the best clodies, because it is posable you will meet people you
know at the saint. From the point of view of the saint, you can wear new
or old clothes. The saint can't see you. You must be clean. ... I put on
my new clothes for the trip. [Do you have to wear special colors?] It is
not necessary to wear any special colors when you visit a saint. If a child is
sick, you must not wear an\' perfume. You can wear other make-up. You
bring whatever verses of the Koran the fqih has \\ ritteii for the child, and
you leave them in 'Aisiia's grotto. [Fatna explained that they were attached
to the roots of the fig tree.] Whatever words of the Koran you are wearing
when you make a trip to Sidi *AIi, you leaye wtdi ^Aisha— even those which
work. [This practice is by no means univetsal.] So, when we went to Sidi
'AH, my husband wore European clodies. It makes no difoence for men,
European or Moroccan clothes. Women should wear Moroccan clodies.
It is more respectful. My husband had ordered the taid for 8 in the morn-
ing. We were not planning to stay the night, because we wanted to keep
the snme taxi and return by noon, in time for hinch. The tud driver had
arranged to make the trip for us for 2,000 francs.

The taxi went directly to Sidi Ahmed. The moment we got into the taxi
Fathna was better. At Sidi Ahmed, I put Fatima under the covers [of the
catafalque]. My husband came in with me but left immediately becanae he
was b<^red and there were too many people there. Before leaving, he gave
the chicken to the muqaddim and left ei^t candles there on the alms box.
He did not leave any money. When you enter a mausoleum, you kiss both
sides of the door and the tomb. Fatima was too young to do that. But at
Sidi Ahmed's and then at Sidi ^\li's I rubbed her head and her face against
the tomb. 1 left Fatima under the covers for about 30 minutes. She did not

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cry. She had been gettiiig better since we got into the taxi After 30 min-
utes, I took Fatima into die courtyard to liiUa 'A!sha*s hole. I sat down by
the hole and took some earth ituba] and nibbed it on Fatima's chest,
forehead, and arms. It was Friday, if 1 ranember. You visit the saints on
Friday or Thursday. It is best then.

Then we went quickly to Sidi *Ali, because the taxi was waiting. We fol-
lowed the footpath, but the taxi went by the road. At Sidi ^Ali's we entered
die tomb, kissed the jambs and the tomb. I rubbed Fatima's hands and face
on the tomb and put her under the covers. I kept her there for 45 minutes.
My husband stayed in the tomb room. He gave the chicken to the muqad-
dim and left eight candles. Fadma was not crying and was no longer fever-
ish. I talked with my husband. He said, **Yon see, had yon taken her here
on the first day, she would have been better. It is all your fault because of
the chicken.** I had put Fadma under die cover, beouse one says that in
diat way you make an ^ with Sidi 'Ali in order for the child to get better.
The child is given to the saint for his protecdon. The child is like a sheep
given to a saint [for sacrifice]. After you have made an "^ar with Sidi *^Ali,
the child belongs to Sidi *AH. If the child gets better, he will get better
right away. If he docs not get better, he will die immediately after the visit.
Sometimes the child will die right under the covers. So, like the sheep, you
say, "This child, O Sidi "^Ali, belongs to you." We left no money at Sidi
*Ali, but we left the chicken and the candles.

Then we went to *Aldia*s giotto. We gave the chi c k en to the muqaddim,
as well as the hst eif^t candles. Then we cut a piece of Fatima's dothing
and hung it on the tree. I had a verse of the Koran hanging from my neclL
I left tiiat^ too, at Lalla *A!isha*s. My husband came widi me to the grotto.
I took some henna and put it on my forehead and on my chest and also on
Fatima's forehead and chest. You find this henna in 'Aisha's grotto. We left
right awaw There was no place to sit. We were the only people there. It
was frightening, with the spring, with the tree. It is always dark there, even
during the day. [Do you kiss anything there?] You do not kiss anything
there.

Fadma was completely cured by the time we got home at noon. We
did nothing for Fatima afterward. We left her in the dodies she had worn
for diree days without wadiing her. We kept her in the same pants
too. We took them off when we knew die had to poopoo. Then we would
put them on again. When she made peepee, we took them off to dry, but
we did not wash them. This we did for three days. I changed mv clothes
immediately. So did my husband. Mv sister-in-law made us lunch, and Fatima
ate for the first time since she had fallen sick. She had eaten nothing for
five days — just a little water. We say that hunger does not kill until after
40 days. After lunch we slept. We slept and slept until 4 o'clock. Then wc
had a simple dinner of rice and milk. Before dinner, at 5 o'dock, all the
friends and neighbors came over to congratulate us. They stayed until din-

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tier. They dnnk tea with us. After dinner, we, the family, all talked nntfl

10:30."

there was one thing I forgor. After we returned, there were two thii^
to do: one for Sidi Ahmed and one for Sidi *AH. For Sidi 'Ali, you take a
little mint and squeeze it into the cars, nostrils, and mouth of the child.
We say that then there will always be flowers in these places. For Sidi
Alinied, you take a little of the earth from the hole in the courtyard — the
muqaddim gives it to you — and \oii pur it in a rag and hang it from the
child's neck. I did this for Fadma. I also prepared the mint for her. It is
imporont not to forget the miat and the eaith after a visit to Sidi *AU and
Sidi Ahmed. Also, after a visit to Sidi Ahmed, the mother of a sick child
mcisti not eat butter for seven days. She most not put henna or perfume on
heisdf. So I did not eat butter for seven days, or put on henna, or per-
fume myself. That is alll did.

I have presented Fatna's account of her pilgrimage in detail because
it ill^istrates what one does on a pilgrimage and^ more important here,
how I (me makes the decision to pay a visit to the saints.^ ^ Such decisions
are dearly not made on the basis of the objective condition of the
patient alone. Although the patient's condition does delimit the taagt
of choice, it does not specifically determine a particular cure. Factors
not directly involving the patient play an important role. In this case,
Fatna's dedsum to go to Sidi 'Ali — even when Fatima's condition was
begiiUing to improve — seems to have been based on a conviction that
she was responsible for her daughter's illness. She had neglected to give
the chicken, as she had pfomised, to the muqaddim of the mausoleum.
She either was encouraged in this behef by her neighbors or projected
her own conviction onto them.

The Westerner would argue that Fatna had a guilty conscience and
was determined to expiate her sm of omission by means of a pilgrinu^
and the sacrifice. Moroccans of Fatna's background, do not, however,
oiganize their experiences in terms of guilt, sin, and expiation. They
organize experience in a more externalized way, and would argue that
Fatna's failure to give the chicken to the muqaddim angered either Sidi
*Ali or 'Aisha Qandisliii and thus resulted in her daughter's illness. Fatna
does not specify who was angry, but \vc may assume that, since saints
do no harm, it must have been 'Aisha who was responsible for Fatima's

'^Tbe informatiofi in die above paragraph was in response to a niunber of

questions put to Fatna. Her story of the pilgrimage ended with the family's
return to Sidi Baba at noon. The final paragraph of her narradon was again her
own.

"Gf. Crapanzano and Kramer 1969 for an accoont of anodier pilgrimage.

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condition. This, at any rate, is how similar cases were explained to me.
The pilgrimage and the sacrifice of the chickens — they were not ac-
tually slaughtered — ^were means of appeasing the saints and 'Aisha
Qandisha. Fatna placed Fatima under the protection of Sidi ^A\i (and
Sidi Ahmed) — "The child, O Sidi 'Ali, belongs to you" — and, in so
doing, abrogated her own responsibility. The child's fate depended
then upon the saint. "If the child gets better, she will get better right
away. If she does not get better, she will die immediately after the
visit.** She does not specify whether the child was also placed under
'Alsha Qandisha's protection.

The role of *Aisha Qandisha in these matters is very ambiguous.
Although sacrifices to 'Aiisha are often referred to as ^ars, it is my im-
pression that they are generally conceived of as gifts to placate the she-
demon. *Alsha is said to like red or black chickens or to like blood.
One does not give a child to her. It must be remembered that whfle it
is possible for a human being to have a child msannad by a saint, it
is not possible for a human being to make a child a follower of a jinn.
It is the |inn wlio decides. Since both saints— e^edally Sidi ^Ali— have
some influence over fAIsha Qandisha, one places the child in their hands
and hopes, Allah willing, that they will exercise that influence and that
*AIsha will accept it. The sacrifice to *AIsha is all that the pilgrim
himself can do to placate her.

It has to be remembered that while the child's illness is the rmon
^etre for the pilgrimage, the pilgrimage serves primarily to remedy a
atuation which affected the child, but for which the child was not at
all responsible. Just as Thebes suffered the plague because of Oedipus*
conduct, so Fatima suffers because of Fatna*5 negligence. Therapy is
not patient-centered but situation-centered.

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; The
I yadra

A cer^ony at which the badra is perfonned is most commoiily
called a Ula, or night, because it usually is held at nigfat. When it is
held iii the moming or the afternoon, it is called a taqyil; and in the
late aflcemoon and early evening an ^ashwiyya. Whenever the cere-
monies do not involve the recitation of litanies, they may be referred
to simply as todras. Frajaj which refers to a secular spectacle, is very
occasionally used to refer to the public performances of the ^dnu It
is nevdr used for private ceremonies.

Onej very common name for the ]^amadsha ceremonies— and for
those ^f odier brotherhoods, especially when they are terminated by
a combranal meal — is sadaqa. **Sadaqa" means charity, gift, or alms,
and is frequently used for the alms left by a pilgrim at a saint's tomb.
It is also used to refer to money given the Qamadsha by spectators
and devotees, and the money and gifts that die adepts of the urban
lodges divide among themselves. In this sense, baraka may be substi-
tuted for sadaqa. One of its derivatives, sdaq, refers to the bride-price
that a iiusband must pay to his wife's family. Merder (1951:191) sug-
gests that '*sadaqa** may also mean the expiation of sins, but one has
to be fBxtremely cautious in dealing with the implicati<Mi8 of such a

definition. The adjectival form sadiq means honest, loyal, truthful, or
sincere. A man who is sadiq is a man who lives up to the highest
standaifds of the Islamic community. Its verbal form, sadaq, means to
ten the truth or to act with sincerity, and the l^amadsha emphasize
that their ceremonies must be performed with ancerity by men who
are saaiqirk If a man is not sincere, not only will he not receive the
blessings, the baraka, of the ^amadsha saints, but he will suffer the
dire consequences of ^Aisha Qandisha*s wrath.

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186

THE J^AMADSHA

The ceremonies of the urban lodges are much more complicated
than those of the bidonville teams. They usually involve the chanting
of litanies as weU as the performance of the hadra, whereas a team cere-
mony consists only of the b^dra. Occasionally a few lines of a litany
(dikr) will be chanted at a team ceremony, if the members happen to
know any, but chanting is not central to the ceremony and it is gen-
erally ignored by the devotees, who are anxious to get on widi the
hadra and dance. The adepts of the urban lodges are c^ed in to chant
theur litanies abne; these invitations are made on festive occasions,
such as name-days or moving days, and they are said to bring much
baraka to the sponsor and his family. The zawiya members never per-
form in public as their confreres in the bidonvilles do. I have seen
them in attendance at public ceremonies, but never actively partici-
pating. Their ceremonies are less violent, less spectacular, than those
of the shantytown Qamadsha.

The adepts daim to work— to perform their ceremonies— out of
love for the saint they follow. They are much more explicit in their
devotion to the Qamadsha saints dum are tlie shant3rtown l^amadsha,
who are more concerned with 'Aisha Qandisha and the other jnun.
The adepts conceive of their performances as a means of obtaining
their saint's baraka— baraka which keeps them in good health and
fortune, and which they can pass on to others during their ceremonies.
It is by virtue of theur saint's baraka diat they are able to perform the
badra and fall into trance (i>al). Both the urban and shantytown
Qamadsha would consider any suggestion that their b^ is a m3^cal
union or communion with God, or their saint, as blasphemous. The
^ is an end in itself, a revitalizing process. I have been told that
awakening from the trance is like being reborn. The ^^amadsha per-
form the badra because their saints did so before them. The saints'
performances were pleasing to God, who gave them their baraka, and
now they, the Qamadsha, their followers, obtain their own baraka
from dion.

Since the bidonviUe IF^anudsha are more concerned with the jnun
than with the saints, they perform the b^dra to please *Aj^ Qan-
disha and the other demons. It is the saints who have given them the
power to perform the badra, but it is *A3shsL Qandisha who enables
them to trance and forces them to slash their heads. Sidi *A]i ordered
Sidi Ahmed to fetch the b^li and this he did by bringing ^ASsha
Qandisha from the Sudan. The zawiya members, too, acknowledge
the inq>ortance of *Alsha Qandisha, but they are more reticent in
talking about her and usually prefer to emphasize the role of Sidi fAli
and Sidi Ahmed.

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THE 9ADRA 187

Boiii the madina and shantytown Qamadsha recognize the efficacy
of th^ petf onnances in the cure of iUncsses, particularly those ill-
nesses caused by 'A&ha Qandisha and other jnm The madina adqits
perhaps lay less stress on the therapeutic effect of their saints' barain
than do the team members from the shant3m>wns. They conceive of
their ceremonies as a means of passing baraka to everybody^ both
the sick and the healthy. The team members see their ceremonies as
pleasing to the jnun— '* ^Alsfaa likes a particular rib*'* *' *Alsha likes the
sight of blood**— and thereby therapeutically effective. Their cere-
monies are directed to the side primarily.

Thb disdnction between the two groups is difficult to communi-
cate. It is one of tone and emphasis and not of belief. Belief itself is
ambigpious and subject to many interpreutions.^ The adepts of the
zawiyas are treated by both the Qamadsha and other Moroccans with
great respect th^ are the poor, the foqra, the sadiqm, who strive to
live up to the ideals of the Islanuc community as they tfaemseh^
understand them. They are men possessed of baraka, and their cere-
monic|5 must be respected r^ardless of whether they are viewed with
approval or disapproval The team members of the bidonviUes are not
treated with this same respect; they are often referred to as charlatans,
money-grubbers, and whoremongers. Their ceremonies are accepted
as necessary; they may be viewed with wonder and with awe, but
never with respect, llus difference is reflected in my own reactions
and the reactions of my informants to the ceremonies of the two
groups. I have been told that at the zawiya ceremonies one has the fear
of God; at the bidonville ceremonies, the fear of ^Alsha. Both my wife
and I recognized a harsh and often histrionic quality in the bidonvine
ceremonies — a violent theatricality and an ambience of threat and
even terror— which we never felt at ceremonies of the madina. Our
reactions were confirmed by several of our non-l^Jbmadsha friends.

Th£ Madina Ceremony: Preparations

Once the decision to sponsor a ceremony has been made, the sponsor
tells the muqaddim of the zawiva he prefers.- Date and time are set —
most ceremonies begin between 7 and 8 in the evening — the fees for

^ Thel ideology of die fAlkliyyiiL, under the leadeiship of their new muoaddim,
appears to be changing in the direction of diat of tiie more active bidonviUe
teams. The Dghughiyyin have maintained a more conservative position.

' In what follows I assume for clarity's sake that the sponsor or host is not the
patient^ibnt a xdative. Usnally he k die fadier or eldtt bradier of the patient^ or
die hnsband in die case of a roamed female patient.

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188

THE 9AMADSHA

the ghiyyata are discussed, and a deposit of 5 or 10 dirhams is left
The deposit, or at least 5 diriiams of die deposit, is given to the khalifa
of the zawiya, who must let all the adepts know of the performance
and bring the ritual paraphernalia to the sponsor's house on the ap-
pointed day. The paraphernalia consists of the zawiya's flag, a basket
for collecting abns, and a few spare drams {gwalat). The muqaddim
may arrange to invite a few of the 2awiya's devotees, especially ones
who are in need of a ceremony, but most of the guests are invited
by the sponsor and his wife. They include members of the family,
friends and neighbors, and any devotees the sponsor happens to know.
Theoretically, anyone else who hears about die ceremony is wekome
to attend. In fact, only acquaintances of the host and devotees who are
driven to enter by the sound of their pardcular musical phrase attend
the ceremony uninvited. Usually between 45 and 80 people will come.
Some will stay for the full performance, others for just a few minntes.
Only invited guests will remam for die meal with which the ceremony
concludes.

The host, his family, and the padent will usually go to die public
bath on the day of the ceremony. Otheis will bathe carefully at home
before attending the hadra, if they do not go to the baths themselves.
While technically no one diould perform the hadra in an unclean con-
dition, the fact that participadon is not altogether voluntary means
that great emphasis cannot be placed on ritual deanliness. A man, dean
or undean, who hears his lib cannot resist dancing without incurring
'Aisha*s wrath or the displeasure of his own pardcular jinn. This, of
course, has dire consequences.

If there is going to be a sacrifice, it is usually performed by die host
the morning before the ceremony in the presence of his family, the
padent, and perhaps a few friends. The muqaddim or the khaUfa of
the zawiya may sometimes hdp him.' A ram is the ideal sacrifice, but
often a male or female goat, which is cheaper, is slaughtered. Although
the sacrifice is not usually central to a madina ceremony, it is of con-
siderable importance to the host, since it is his major expense. Goats
may cost as litde as 45 dirhams, and rams as much as 200 dirhams or
more. The meat of the animal is used to make the couscous and stew

'Sometimes the muqaddim will force the patient to collect the blood of the
sacrificial animal in his cupped hands and swallow it. He may smear a little blood
from the knife on the ptdent's forehead tnd neck. This practice is very rare
anuM^ the madlna Ijbmadsha but, despite Koranic interdiction (Sura 11, 1, 73),
it is not infrequent among the bidonville and rural Hamadsha. When it is fol-
lowed, the sacrifice takes place at the beginning of the formal ceremony after
the guests have arrived.

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I TH£ J^ADRA 189

(ta]i?i) that are served at the ceremony to the adepts and the guests.
The skin is given to the zawiya. Goatskins are used for drumheads;
sheepskins may either be given to the saint's descendants or sold and
the proceeds given. If no sacrifice is made, meat is bought from the
local butcher. After making the sacrifice, the host will spend the rest
of the day waiting for guests and entertaining early arrivals. Some-
times, these early arrivals are members of his family who have come
from far away to attend the ceremony. The host's wife, usually aided
by neighbors and girls and women in the family, spends the day pre-
paring the ceremonial meal.

That evening, the adepts and ghiyyata parade in front of the host's
house to attract attention. The host usually stands at his door and
greets them. They play a few of the popular rihs and dance a little.
There is seldom any trancing at this stage. They will be surrounded by
excited men, women, and children, who often follow them into the
sponsor's house. Once inside, the muqaddim repeats a fatha* for the
host and his family. A special prayer is usually said for the patient.
The muqaddim or a sharif may massage or spit on the ailing part of
the patient's body. Then all of the adepts sit down in a corner of the
courtyard, and the host tends to them and the other guests. Men remain
in the courtyard vvlien the weather permits it; women stay in a sepa-
rate room or on the roof. Both the men and women sit or stand pressed
close together, as they do on all ceremonial occasions. While the
guests wait for the host to serve them milk and dates — a sign of wel-
come and early return — ^and mint tea, the indispensable ingredient of

is the dialect fonii of fotx^, which icfefs to the openii^ venes of die

Koran. Fatha is used by the ^amadsha and other Moroccans of their background
for an invocation which does not necessarily coatatn the Koiaoic verses. A typical

fatija at a ^amadsha ceremony is:

O mv brothers, pray for me.
I I ahaU be cored, tiurnks to your invocation.

Shelter mc under your wings.
I O children of Mustafa, the chosen, the elected.

I There is no God but Allah.

O Prophet, core me.

AU c£ the lines but tlie last are repeated diree times. Sometimes the fatha is modi
siunter. The following one was repeated at a curing ceremony in a bidonville.

^ Thanks to Allah and Sidi ^AH.

I Allah will give you bread that is not

prepared by the hands of men but by angels.

This fat|ia, rejpeated by a sharif, was considered to be particularly good. One of
the listeners dwscribed his reaction to it in the following words: "I felt my heart
to be very hot at this time and then I heard the fatha and then it was as thiMigh
a pail of cold water— cold wind — ^made my heart go cold."

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190 THE jy[AMADSHA

Moroccan hospitality, the adepts gossip among themselves. The drum-
mers may tighten the membranes of their drums over a brasier at this
time.

LrrANiEs

When all of the guests are served, the nmqaddim leads the adepts
in a responsive recitation of the hizb: a long, laudatory invocation to
Allah, whose forgiveness is sought.

A. In the name of Allah, the compassionate and the merciful

B. May eternal happiness lest with our lord Muhammad, His family,
and His companions

A. Let US praise Allah the benevolent

B. Him, the adored Allah

A. May He hear my widies

B. May He pardon me and grant me His mercy

A. I am a sinful slave

B. And I implore my lord

A. Because it is my duty

B. To ask Him to guide me

A« O, the compassionate one, die merciful one
R Protect us from hell

A. Yon are die only one, the unique

B. Yon are the unkjoe and the omnipotent one

etc. etc*

This is a section of the bizb recited by the Dghughiy3Hn of Meknes.
The *Allaiiyyia zawijm has a different bizb. There is in i^tct no stands
ard t^izb for either Qamadsha brotherhood, and differing texts are
used throughout the country. It is claimed that the bizb of the 'Alla-
Uyyin of Meknes was composed by al-Shadhili, but ttds seems unlikely,
since al-Shadhili left no writings (Rahman 1968:197). The Dghu-
ghiyyin do not know the origin of their bizb, but I have been told
by a Fasi in-law of one of Sidi 'Ali*s descendants— a man whose wisdom
is generally respected — that it was composed by Sidi Heddi, the
founder of the mendicant brotherhood known as the Heddawa, The
language of die bizb and of the other litanies is written in what the
Hamadsha refer to as classical Arabic but which is, in fact, a mixture
of clasacal and dialectical Arabic. Most of the adepts do not under-
stand it very wdl and are content reciting it.

The muqaddim takes no special place when he leads the recitation.
He remams seated with the adepts, who are pressed together and who

THE I^ADRA

191

may sway slightly from side to side. The adepts do not engage in any
of the gymnastics reported for other brotherhoods; they often close
their eyes during the recitation of the hizb. From time to time, one
adept or another will replace the muqaddim as leader of the recitation.
The men in the audience center their attention on the adepts, but they
may occasionally gossip or finish drinking their tea. The women seem
less interested in the recitation of the hizb and other litanies. The
patient — or patients — is generally ignored.

Sometimes, in place of the hizb, short moralistic tales and prayers
called waiiasa are recited. The most popular of these songs are said
to have been composed by al-Maghrawi, a bard in the court of the
Saadian sultan al-Mansur ad-Dhabi (1578-1602) who was considered
one of the greatest of the composers of dialectical lyrics (malhun)
(Chottin 1938:104). A pilgrim, for example — I am not sure whether
this poem is by al-Maghrawi— makes no provisions for his journev to
Mecca, but he is aided by another "pilgrim" and has a successful
journey.

' I made a pilgrimage witli faith and conviction.

I came back happy and widi changed name.

All listeners called me haj j.
I My heaR was filled with joy.

AUah satisfied my wishes.

I came back sonomided by friends and biocheis. . • •

When the hizb or the wanasa is completed — ^it lasts anywhere from
about five minutes to over an hour — ^there may be a pause for tea
before the recitation of the dikr begins. The dikr, resembling the hizb
in content, consists of shorter phrases which are said more rapidly.
The adepts may accompany the recitation with hand-clapping and a
gentle tapping of drums. The ganbri may be played.

A., B. In the name of Allah, the compassionate and the merciful

A. I begin with the name of Allah

B. I To him I dedicate die foUowii^ wmrds

A. Muhammad, O Peifect Creature

B. You are as soft as beeswax

A. i You, who have brou^t the light

B. You, who have come as an envoy
A. You are the enlightened man

Bb , You are the savior at the last judgment

' etc., etc.

(Section of dikr used
by Dghughiyyin)

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THE HAMADSHA

Although the adepts are stiU seated, they do sway back and forth
more rapidly as they recite the short dikr phrases, and they also start
to hyperventilate. I have been told that they have the fear of God at
this time. As the dUcr is r^eated faster and faster and louder and
louder, both the adepts and the spectators become exdted. A wave of
heat passes tfaioogh the courtyard. The women, in their separate room
or up on the roof, begin to ululate their excitement and their im-
patience to begin the b^dra. I have seen women become so excited
during the recitation of the dikr that lliey begin to dance as if the
badra had already begun. The men disapprove of such behavior, and
they shove the women roughly out of the court. "The hizb and the
dikr are for men," they often say. In fact there appears to be con-
siderable tension between the men and women at this stage of the
performance, a tension which, of course, is dramatically symbolized
by the separation of the sexes. Children, too, become more excited
and belligerent and are treated equally roughly by the adults and the
curious teenage boys who inevitably show up at these ^amadsha cere-
monies. The patient, who does not actively participate in the recitation
of the litanies, is nevertheless moved by the excitement of the group.
Finally, when the excitement is at a peak — anywhere from 5 to 45
minutes or more from the beginning of the dikr — the adepts stand,
hiss out the name of God or the last syllable of His name, "llah," as
rapidly as possible, and start to dance the b^dra, while the ghiyyata
blare out their whining tunes and the drummers beat out their
monotonous rhythms.

The Hot Part of the l}AiajL

The badra is divided into three principal parts: the hot part (ex-
skhun)^ in which the ghita is played along with the tabU and the gwal;
the cold part (al-barid), in which the ghita is replaced by the nira or
sometimes the ganbri; and the iuidra gnawiyya, which uses the instru-
ments of the cold part but is derived from the ceremonies of the
Gnawa.

The hot part of the badra comes first and is the loudest, fastest, and
most violent part of the performance. The two ghiyyata, a snare
drummer or two, and three or four gwal players stand at one end of
the dance area; the other adepts, and any male guest who wants to,
line up shoulder to shoulder, opposite the musicians and forming an
outer boundary to the dance area. This line is called the sifa (litenlly.

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THE 9ADRA 193

configuration) and resembles the dance position of the Berber dndus.
The number of men in a line will vary during the performance of the
hot part, but it seldom exceeds 25. Occasionally, a woman will join
the lin^ **to cool down."

The ^en pound up and down on their heels, '*knocking the breadi
out,** raise and lower their shoulders, and hiss out their breath as they
seek the baL They are encouraged by the muqaddim, who dances in
front of them. He leaps, turns in mid air, lands on his knees, leaps again,
and stabs at his chest with his fists as he lands. His stabbing motions
are reminiscent of those of the followers of the Barong who stab
themselves with krisses in the Balinese dramatic portrayal of the strug-
gle of me forces of good (Barong) and evil (Rangda) (Bdo 1960:96-
124). A few women are usually drawn by the music of the ghita out
of their separate quarters and into the dance area, where diey bob
up and Idown, in trance, or pitch from side to side in front of the ghiy-
yata. Their feet remain in place; their pitching movement is faster than
anything possible in a fully conscious state. Often they swing their
h^ds so low as to graze die floor with their hair, but I have never seen
them hit it. They are generally ignored at this stage of the badra, but
if they become too excited they are made to join die line of men. The
patient, especially if he is a man or boy, is encouraged to participate
in this part of the badra. He is sometimes forced to join the line, or he
is placed in the center of the dance area and made to dance by the
muqaddim.

The ^udience shuffles about when the hadra begins. Spectators ap-
pear to take the positions that are most satisfying to them. Some prefer
to huddle near the ghita players, others to stand behind the Ihie of
men, ai^d still others to remain as far back from the dance as possible.
The basic dance pattern is illustrated in Figure 10.

From time to time, the men in the line will chant short phrases or
simply die name of God. The most common of the phrases is "Allah!
Allah! Allah die Eternal! Allah die Adored!'* which Sidi 'AU is said
to have chanted whenever he performed the b^dra. Other popular
phrases are: '*By the grace of Mohammed**; "Allah, our master, it is
the doo^, it is the door to my refuge in Allah the eternal*'; "O Allah,
our master, it is the dearest door of communion since die commemora^
don of |the cdebradon of the birth of the Prophet'*; "O Sidi *Ali, help
the tardy. O ben Qamdush, be generous with your sadsfacdon with
me"; "Vou are the possessor of safety. Help me, O son of Lalla 'Ai^ia,
help me"; **0 you who have abandoned me, denuded of sfiatf whose
love has embraced my heart"; "I seek your help, O Moulay Abddqa-

194

THE 9AMAD8HA

w
w

ghita player

gwol player

snore drummer

muqoddlm

man

woman

«^

oudience

Figure 10. The basic pattern of the hot part of the hadra.

der Jilali, my protection. Come to my aid. I shall carry m3^self to Tadla
to make a pious visit to you, O Bu*iabid, the nobility of my eyes**; *'0
Prophet of God, nodung can save us from the fires of hell**; ''Moulay
Idriss, the house of safe^; **0 saints, whose role is to bring aid and
assistance'*; '*Door of doors. The house here below is the life of error
and waywardness. Do not build palaces, because you shall move and
abandon them'*; and ''There is no God but God, my helper. I pray
to God the generous. He, my eternal master." There is no order to
these phrases, and their meaning often remains obscure. I have been
told that they are the phrases the ghita speaks. 'Ton hear them just as
you see things in those pictures you showed me,'* one of my informants
explained, referring to my Roi^ach cards.

THE 9ADRA 195

TRANtie AND Dance Patisrns

The hadra is designed to lead the performers, including the patient,
into an altered state of consciousness, or trance.*^ The Hamadsha rec-
ognize two such states: hal and jidba. Hal, which means temperature,
condition, or state, and is in general use in Moroccan Arabic, has, as
I have noted, a specific meaning in the Sufi lexicon. It refers to one of
the psycho-gnostic states (ahawal)^ such as nearness to God or divine
intimacy, over which the mystic has no control. These states are
descended from God. In at least the popular brotherhoods of Morocco,
i>al refers to the entranced state which in the Sufi lexicon is known as
nvajd, or ecstasy. Insofar as the Moroccan trancer has no control over
his hal — ^it is d^ended from a saint or a jinn and ultimatdiy from God
— ^the hal resembles the ahwal of the Sufis.^

For the Hamadsha, hal is both a generic and a specific term. Geneti-
cally, it refers to any trance which occurs during the hadra; specifi-
cally, it refers to a nonviolent trance, which corresponds roughly to
what is known in the literature on hypnosis as a somnambulistic state.*^
It is usually attributed to the saint, and may be preliminary to the more
violent jidba. Its semantic field probably varies slightly with reference
to meik and women, for it seems to encompass a deeper trance and
more frenetic behavior when used for women. This may result from
the fact that women fall into trance with much more ease than men,
and their initial dance steps are more vixdent.

Jidbih which is a more frenetic trance, is derived from the Arabic

' Trance shall be loosely defined as a complete or partial dissociation, character-
ized by changes in such functions as identity, mcmor)^ the sensory modalities,
and thought. It may involve die loss of voluntary control over movement, and
may be accompanied by haUadnations and vidons whidi aie often foiuoitcn.

•It is curious, however, that in Morocco a person in trance is said to be "out of
his conditions" (kharij al-ahival)\ a lunatic is also said to be "without his hal"
{bila hal). To enter hal may be rendered t/a' fib l-hal (the hal mounts in him) or
jah l-bal (the hal arrives '\n him). The second expression may also mean to
c'laculate (Mercier 1951). The connection bet^veen hal and the mental state at
the moment of ejaculatioa is not made, however. T^ayyar — which is related to
WQr& meaning DewOdered, confused, or dombfounded {hayr) and anxious,
angr)% and coiuoaed, mhayyar—h also used with reference to entering trance.

'During the somnambulistic state, quite complex behavior can be carried out
— "behavior which is 'unconscious' but nonetheless subject to control, which
dearly bean the imprint of die culture to which die indJ^dnal belongs, and whidi
is mocHned accordmg to the makei^ of the individual personality, the poddve
impulses which fit in with the trance role he is playing, and the negative or
inhibiting restraints which the remainder of his normal personality, although in
abeyance, is abk to exert" (Belo 1950:212-213).

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196

THE HAMADSHA

for attraction. It is used by the Sufis for the mystical attraction to
God. Although the transition from hal to jidba is always abrupt and
dramatic, jidba does not altogether correspond to such ^'strong sei-
zures" as are described for trance in Bali (Belo 1960:213). It is,
as we will see, a structured experience in which the performer carries
out relatively complex behavior, but does not appear to have the
same control as he does in hai. It is comparable to a state of extreme
rage (cf. Belo 1960:223). Except in its most extreme manifestations,
it does not exhibit the universal features which come "from too deep
a level to be influenced by custom or by idiosyncratic trends in the
personality" (Belo 1960:212).® Jidba is usually attributed to *Aisha
Qandisha or another jinn, and not to the saint. It may occur in any of
the three parts of the hadra.

Men and women differ significantly in their trance and dance pat-
terns.^ Women, who fall into trance much more readily than men do,
remain in the audience until ''they are driven by the music of the gfaita
into hal." They may either work their way through the audience to the
dance floor and begin to dance in front of the ghiyyata or ^ to the
ground, unconscious and paralyzed, and remain in this cataleptic state
for a few minutes before they rise and start to dance.^^ The audience,
whether in the intimate private ceremonies or in the more impersonal
public ones, Is always ready to allow women (or men) to move through
it to the center dance area. Women who are driven to the center can
easily be recognized by the ease and even grace with which th^ manip-
ulate their way through the crowd; they appear to float. Thar move-
ments are slow, their eyes are glazed and transfixed, and they seem
oblivious to all but a "goal** in front of them, in the dance center.
They are in a light trance. The moment they reach the dance floor,
they move as dose to the ghiyyata as they can — as though seeking
stimulation — and begin bobbing up and down and swaying from side
to side in their stylized way. They may continue to wear the veil while

•Belo (1960:212) argues that while the affective intcrprctarion or coloring of
trance experience determines the "mood" in which the somnambulistic trance
acttvicy takes place, the ''cataclysmic discharge of nervous tensioa" cf the strong
secure is not affected by such interpretation. Its features remain constant, dequce
the emotional background, be it of anger, fear, or sexualirw

"1 have observed on several occasions male transvestite dancers shift back and
fordi from male to female steps, af^Miendy unable to decide on the appropriate
style.

"I did not see enough performances with the same female performers to note
whether these two preliminary trance patterns varied with the same trancer or
with their hearing dmerem musical phnaes.

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THB 9ADRA

197

danciog, ot ^tuey may remove it. This is one of die few occaskms on
whict^ the veil can be removed in public.

Although womea yi^bo fall to the ground before dancing give the
impression that they do so immediately and abruptly, I have found
that they are often in trance before their collapse. This is not unusual,
since many members of the audience, especially people closest to the
ghiyyata, ftU in and out of tnmce throu^iout die performance. I, too,
have felt myself momentarily lose contact widi what was going on
around me. It is possible that the women who do collapse eidier have
resisted dancing, as may be the case with certam teen-age giris who
attend school and consider the hadra backward, or are not yet fully
aware of the prodromata of theur trance dancing, as may be the case
with young and inexperienced trancers. My general impression is
that the majority of women who collapse before dancing ate younger
and less experienced trancers than those who make their way through
the audience. The first trance experience of every woman— and every
man, for that matter-^that I have heard about or seen has been suddm
and abrupt and has involved a collapse.

Before foiling to the ground, the female dancer appears semi-con-
sctoufrf-sleepy, one might say— and disoriented. Her eyes are glazed
and uijfocused, and she seems to be oblivious to her surroundings. She
may n^d her head slighdy to the rhythm of the music If someone
spMks jto her, she acts as though she were suddenly awakened from a
deep r^erie and appears to be dighdy irritated by the interruption. Her
coUapse is always sudden and involves a loud thud, which attracts a
good deal of attention. She remains on the ground for several minutes,
in a cataleptic state which may have been preceded by convulsive
movements. Sometimes, during the paralyzed phase, she exhibits a
slight tremor of the hands or feet. Her breath is shallow, her hands
clammy, and her body cold. If she is left alone, she will gradually start
responding to the music and will either rest on her knees or stand and
dance, lofttn she vnll begin to dance before her whole body has re-
covered from paralysis. It is not unusual to see a woman dandng with
her le|t forearm and hand still stiff. The woman who collapses is,
however, rarely left alone. Rather, as soon as she shows any sign of
life, she is helped to her feet by a woman in the audience or by one
of the female caretakers from the zawiya, who may dance widi her
for a while until she is able to go on alone.

The dancer continues to dance in the stylized manner until the
music ends or she herself is exhausted— "until her jinn has Iiad enough.**

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THE 9AMADSHA

She follows the rhythm of the music and is capable of loosening her
dodies or removing her veil Sometimes a woman in the audience will
tie a kerchief around her chest to keep her breasts from flopping.
Often her hair will loosen and fall in front of her face or swing
around it in long snake-like curls. Loosened hair always makes an im-
pression on the men in the audience. Often, too, the hood of her
jallaba will fall down over her face. No effort is ever made to remove
it. In this state of Ifal, the woman will usually exhibit a slight exoph-
thalmos. Her breath will be rapid, her face flushed, and her move-
ments, again, much more rapid than would be possible in a normal
state of consciousness.

Sometimes a woman will suddenly fall out of rhythm— this is said
to happen when her special rib is played — ^and enter a frenetic trance
that is called jidba. She may charge around the dance floor, screaming;
she may act as though she is seeing things in front of her; she may £^
into a convulsive state; she may suffer temporary paralysis of a limb
or severe contraction of the face; and she may scratch at her head, or
even demand a knife and slash at it, with more abandon than the men.
Sometimes she will use the knife to cut her forearm — ^usually the left
one.^* These acts of self-mutilation are rare among female dancers,
and especially rare at the ceremonies of the zawiya members. During
the jidba, the woman's eyes will also exhibit marked exophthalmos.
She will appear transfixed. Her breath will be very rapid, almost rasp-
ing, her face flushed, and her movements abrupt and <fisorganized.

Certain women in jidba are compelled to imitate pigs. They begin
to squeal and grunt and grovel on the ground, and can only be ap-
peased when a little water is sprinkled around theoL Such a woman
is looked on with a certain di^st by both male and female members
of die audience. She is often said to be marja (lit., bog or swamp), to
have a wet vagina, possibly from leucorrhea.^ It has to be remembered

have on at least one occasion seen a woman try to cut off her breast; Female

worshippers of C\ bcle cut off their breasts just as her male devotees castrated
themselves (W'cigert-Vowinkel 1938, quoting Henri Graillot, Le Cult de Cybele^
Mere des Dieux, i Rome et dms PBmpire romam^ Paris: Fontemoing, 1912).

" A woman with a moist Tagina is regarded wkh dissnst. It is impossible to
determine whether the moisture referred to is the normal moisture of the vagina
durine intercourse or a pathological condition. Given the fact tliat most of my
male mformants preferred to e)acalate as rapidly as possible after penetration and
did not stimulate duur women first, it is possible that tliey were referring to die
vaginal secretions of an aroused woman. It is said that a woman becomes a marja
if her husband ejaculates when he deflowers her (and, sometimes, for three days
afterward).

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199

that pigs are considered lowly animals and thdr meat is taboo to the
Muslim (cf. Belo 1960:223).

Most women will stop dancing before the music ends. Some will
continue to the very end of the music and stop then without any difH-
culty. They may appear disoriented for a few minutes, but that will
be thi^ only visible aftermath of their trance. Others, however, will
not have had enough when the music stops* and these women will fall
to the ground in a state of paralysis or remain la ft catalytic, often
grotesque, standing posture until the music has begun again. This state
is called yabU, and is associated with dryness, as of a plant. It is said
that the jinn of such a woman has not had enough. S^ie exhibits the
symptoms of someone who has fallen before beginning to trance.
If the musicians do not begin to play again immediately, iiA is usually
oovere{d with a blanket by the other women. She will remain paralyzed,
sometimes for hours, until the musidans play her ri^ It is said that
if her is not played, she will remain paralyzed or at least suffer a
general maJaise tdiat is often described as **pinching bones." If she is
never given the opportunity to dance again, it is believed that she will
die and that the musicians and her family will suffer dure consequences.

Although some of the young male dancers, particularly at their
first tnndng, enter hal in the same way the women do, most male
tranceis work themselves into the trance slowly. They join the line of
dancers voluntarily, and then, by means of the breathing and the dance
techniques, work themselves into the hal. In hal, they are able to fol-
low the rhythm and dance steps of the ^dia; their movements may
be simplified and appear graceful and even dreamy. Their eyes are
fixed and often exhibit slight exophthalmos. Their limbs may quiver
slightly or become stiff. Their speech is slurred, and they seem dis-
oriented. They are able to fall out of trance with ease, especially if
the situation demands their conscious attention — ^as, for example, at-
tending to guests if one should happen to be host. Subjectively, in-
formants report a loss of temporal and spatial orientation and of body
consciousness, except in the head, which feels swollen and warm and
may itch slightly. They hear nothing but the music of the ghita, and
they see shadows (singular form, kbayal) before their eyes. €)f tea they
remember nothing of the experience.

My body tightens. It becomes more and more tight. Then I throw m3^self
to the ground. I feel hot. I see only ^ATsha during the hadra. She is in front
of me. She too dances the hadra. My head itches. My eyeballs do not move.

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THE 9AMADSBA

I am noc oooactous of my body. I sweat a lot I do not knofw wbeie I am
or what time it is. I remain tiiis way for about two minntes and then I
begin jidba.^'

From time to time, one or two of the male dancers will leave the line
and begin to dance in the center in a more frenetic fashion. Or he
ivill fall to the giomid in a cataleptic state, followed occasionally by
convulsive movements and violent tremors of the limbs. Then it is said
that the dancer has heard his special rib has fallen into jidba.
Gradually, as the musicians continue to play a particular tune to vhich
he is reqx>nsive, the dancer^s body will relax, and he will stand and
charge wildly around the dance area, screaming and scaring the
women and children in the audience.^^ At this point he is unable to
follow the dance rh3rthms, although he may become obsessed with the
g^ta and push at it or beckon it seductively. Sometimes he will stimu-
late his genitals with his hands or by rubbing himself against another
dancer of the same sex.^*' He may scratch his head, and occadonally
he will ask for a pocket knife and slash at his head with it until his
face and shoulders are drenched in blood. The knife is held so that the
blow is softened by the dancer's thumb. These wounds are usually of
a superficial nature and do not reach the cranium, although most dadi-
ers report having mutilated themselves at least once in the course of
a lifetime with more abandon than asual.^'

"Reported by an experienced Hamdushi in his middle thirties.

"Those dancers who charge around most violently, simulating attack, usually
end up slashing their heads. Aggression is first turned outward but controlled and
then turned toward self with less control. This pattern is also found among the
Balinese kriss dancers. Belo (1960:3) has called attention to parallels with the
amok psychosis. This pattern of aggression turned inward is not infrequently
seen in nie sudden transition from rage to depression found among at least those
Moroccans of the Hamadsha's milieu. A man who, for whatever reason, is enraged
and exhibits all the overt symptoms of his anger, suddenly retires to a comer of
his house and sits there silent and immobile for hours if not days. Such a man
is desctnied generally as vtqallesb and, significantly, by the I^amadsha as mqa^
desk, "Mqandcsfa,** niey sqr, is derived n'om "Qandkha." Several of my head-
slashing informants were prone to such depressions.

^None of my male informants have ever reported having had an ejaculation
during trance. The Ifamadsha ignore s»ual behavior during trance, and they
make no compattton htxweta tianoe and the sexual act. Indeed, they arc shocked
by the very suggestion. Some women have remarked, however, that "the feeling
after a 'good' trance is like the feeling you have when you have made love, and
no one has interrupted yon."

*It is possible that the wounds then reach to the cranium. I have seen several
Hamadsha with large cup-like indentations in their skulls which resulted from a
blow with a club, ^amadsha who have hit themselves on several occasions with
such abandon often seem pmich-drank. It Is said diat some ^amadsba have killed

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THE 9ADRA 201

Traditionally — and today during the muscm — the Hamadsha slashed
their heads with a single-bladed iron axe {shaqiir) or a doublc-bladcd
one (shaqria) that resembles the medieval halbard and is not dissimilar to
the axes found at Cnossos. They also hit their heads with an iron ball
(kura) often weighing as much as twenty pounds, with a club (z-ar-
ivata) covered with nails and also weighing as much as twenty pounds,
and with bundles of sticks. The Hamadsha arc proud of these instru-
ments of mutilation and handle them with great care.^^

Some male dancers in jidba imitate camels; they walk stiffly to-
gether in pairs, and then move apart and battle each other as camels
often do. They make deep, rasping sounds which are likened to the
grunts of camels.**' A few men imitate pigs.

Subjectively, the dancer in jidba reports the same symptoms as in
hal, but more extreme. He hears nothing but the sound of the ghita
and the blood throbbing in his head, which feels ready to explode and
itches intensely. This itcliing sensation has been described as "like a
wasp under the skin." When it occurs, the dancer may see 'Aisha
Qandisha before him, slashing at her own head with a piece of iron
and compelling the dancer to do the same. Most of my infomiants who
had experienced jidba could recall nothing of the experience.

I fall to the ground then. If I am made to get up right away then I can
tell yob what I have aeen eacdy. If I am not forced to get up, but get up
on my own, then I do not remember what I have seen. I am hot and
hieatfae heavily. I feel myself duobbing. There is much itching. I am not

conscious of my body. I do not know where I am. Nor do I know what

time it is. My body feels like boiling water. It is frightening. I see only
*Aisha. [How do you feel during the head hitting?] It is 'Aisha who makes
me hit my head. I sec her in front of me. She has a piece of iron. She is
hitting her head. I begin to hit my head also. I am not aware of the fact
that I am hitting my head. There is itching and sweating, and my whole
body is hot. When *Aisha stops hitting her head, so do I. Then I continue
to dance. My body and head continue to throb. I am not aware of my
wounds. I am sdll hot. I am sweating a lot, and my breadi is very fasc^

It is said that it is the itching that makes the dancers slash, and the
flow of blood that calms ^Ai^. The Qamadsha often smear blood

themselves by hitdng their heads with a jug that cracked; a shard penetrated to

the brain.

"The' inatTumeiits may be seen in die Mua^e de FHomme in Paiis.

"Camels are often castrated to make them more tractable.
^* "^Aisha Qandisha is sometimes said to take the fomi of a vnsp,
« Cf . in. 13.

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THE 9AMAD8BA

from their head wounds on ailing parts of a patient's body. Wester-
marck (1926(I):203) reports that they dipped cubes of sugar into the
blood and gave it to the sick to eat. I have heard that they also dipped
bread in their wounds and fed it to the ailing. In those instances in
which *Aisha is not "seen" dancing in front of the head slasher, she is
considered actually to have entered his body and lodged hexself in
his head. She is responsible for the itching. There is no consciousness of
pain during jidba, immediately afterward, when the dancer has
"cooled down" and is again in hal, or after the dance itself. Often
dancers do not know that they have wounded themselves until they
discover bloodstains on their clothes. They do nothing to help the
wounds heaL

Hot Part of the Hadra Falls

The hot part of the l;^dra may last from five or ten minutes to over
an hour, depending on the mood of the musicians and the condition
of the dancers. Usually it ends unexpectedly with several long blasts
of the ghita. The hadra is said to have fallen. Most of the dancers
will return to their places in the audience. These dancers appear to
come to their senses with considerable ease, although they may be dis-
oriented for a few minutes. Some dancers do not return to a normal
state of consciousness, but remain in a sort of daze until the cold part
of the hadra begins. There are usually a few dancers who do not re-
cover from the trance at all and will stay paralyzed on the floor or in
a standing position. By playing their rihs, the musicians will make
them recover their senses during the cold part of the hadra. The
Hamdushi whose experiences I have been quoting describes his sensa-
tions at the end of the hot part of the b^dra this way:

The moment the hadra stops, my body begins to tremble. Sometimes I fall.
I am still not conscious of having hit mv head. There is no itching. I have
cooled them [the jnun] down with the axe. I am not conscious of my body.
I sdU do not know where I am or whtt time it is. I can repeat the f atha,
but I do not know what I am saying. It Is the body orifices that ^peak— die
children of 'Aislia. They are in my body when I make die It^adra, and
*Aisha is in front of me. There Is one of them on each of my shoulders.
I am not aware of the words I am saying. I do not remember them after-
wards. My body is still hot.

This description is somewhat confused. My informant seems to have
identified the ^'children of ^A'isha" inside him with the two angels who

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THE 9ADRA

203

are said to keep count of the good and bad deeds a man commits each
day.

The musicians on one side of the courtyard and the men in hne on
the other form the boundaries of the area in which tlic action of the
hadra takes place. They set off the dance area from the audience and
transfomi it into a stapc. On stn^e there is a tension, in dramatic
tenns, hcrvveen the two groups. Women dance individually in a less
controlled fashion next to the ghiyyata; men, until jidba, dance
together in a more controlled manner. The ghita and the drums excite
the dancers and lead them into trance. "The c^hita talks to me" and
"The ghita speaks to my jinn" are common descriptions of the ghita's
effect. The line, the most distant point on "stage" from the ghiyyata,
is said to cool down those who entered jidba.

The ghita draws men from the hne, as well as members of the audi-
ence, into the center of the stage. Here they dance individually, often
fall into jidba, and sometimes slash their heads. Occasionally the musi-
cians — especially the drummers — are drawn into the center too. The
muqaddim, whose principal function at this stage of the hadra is to
encourage trance, may also fall into jidba and lose control of his
dancing. The patient is encouraged to fall into jidba, and exhibits the
symptoms described above for other dancers. It is not necessary for
him to slash his head in order to be cured, although the experience of
jidba is usually necessary. Sometimes the muqaddim or a sharif, if a
sharif should happen to be present, will walk on the patient's back
or spit on him. *Aisha Qandisha is said to be under the ground at the
center of the stage, and it is from there that she will emerge to possess
an individual dancer or to dance in front of everybody when her par-
ticular rih is played. ('Aisha's rih is played later, during the cold part
of the hadra.) It is ^Aisha's presence that accounts for the fact that the
Hamadsha must dance barefoot and that they become enraged and
tear at anyone who wears new slippers and walks in them across the
stage.^^ Her presence also explains why some dancers fall to the
ground and kiss the dance floor.

"^I have never seen or heard of a case where the H>niadsha have attaclced a
person in slippers. .Mcnibers of the andience tre cfliefnl not to wear new slippers
in front of the Hamadsha. In fact, one of the most important jobs of the female
caretakers is to take the guests' shoes and put them away. It should be noted that
die *Iiawa in trance attack and tear apart any one weariog bhck. This occon
frequently at the musem. Women feeqnently wear black it tnis time, daptot their
imowledge of its possibk consequences.

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THE 9AMAD8HA

Music of the IpoiRA

The music of the hot part of the hadra is sometimes called the music
of the father, and it is said to have the color white. The ghita is the
hot part's most important instrument. Drums play the constant, mo-
notonous background music, but the ghita^-and in other sections of
the badra the nira and the ganbri^-canies the highly ornamented
melodic phrases which drive the participants into trance. The ribs
of the hot part of the badra ate classified into at least four groups,
each of them named for a tribe: Zerhuni, Qasnawi, Gharbawi, and
Bukhari The Zerhuni group is sometimes divided into an 'Allaliyyi
and a Dghughiyyi subgroup; the Gharbawi has one major subgroup,
the Khalifi, named after a saintly lineage of the Gharb calleid the
Wulad Khalifa. The phrases are also divided according to old and
new nhs, but this division appears to be purely personal and refers
to the power of the rib* The older the ribf the more powerful it is
said to be.

Individuals are said to respond specifically to certain ribs. One rib
may leave a man unaffected, a second may drive turn into trance, and
a third may cause him to be possessed by a jinn he follows. I know
of one man who daims to follow four different jnun — he is a meinber
of one of the bidonville teams— and who responds to at least four
different ribs in four different ways. His dance style and his trance
behavior vary with the phrase played. One rib makes him dance in
much the same way the muqaddkns do; a second sends him into a sort
of dreamy trance in which his movements sbw down considerably; a
third drives him into a frenzy during which he dashes around madly,
eyes protruding, until he spots a glass, chews it to pieces, and swallows
it; the fourth rib causes him to slash his head. Once a man*s rib is
played and he falls into a trance, the musicians must continue to play
variations on that until the man has had enough:— '*until his jinn
has been satisfied.** If the rib changes before he lus had enough, he
will usually end up in a cataleptic state, as we have noted, until his
rib is resumed. Then he will dance '*until his jinn is satisfied.**

The phrases of the hot part of the badra do not, however, have
specific and generally accepted associations with specific named-
jnun. They are all vaguely associated with ^Alsha Qandisha, but they
have no color and incense associations. Some Qamadsha relate one or
more of them to specific jnun they follow, but these tend to be per-
sonal associations. They are perhaps modeled on the elaborate jinn-
rib associations of the t^^dra gnawiyya. In this section of the bsidra,

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205

individual rihs within the named groupings do not have names. They
arc indicated by cither humming or by singing them with the word ba
(father). Sometunes they arc referred to by the words that are chanted
when they are played, but this sort of reference tends to be very per-
sonal, since the phrases are not necessarily associated with any particu-
lar chants.

There does not seem to be a fixed order to the musical phrases.
The adepts of one zawiya usually begin with one order and those of
the second with another, but the order soon changes and will vary
from performance to performance. The choice is made by the ghiyyata
while they play. 1 licrc arc no pauses during the hot part of the hadra,
and the ghiyyata move from rih to rih and elaborate on them all, in
much the same \\ ay that a group of jazz musicians will improvise at
a jam session. The decisions are not fully conscious and seem to de-
pend both on the mood and whims of the ghijyata, the condition of
the audience, the needs of individual dancers — including the patient,
if lie should happen to be dancing — and perhaps on certain structural
necessities within the music.-- The ghiyyata manage to maintain a
high emotional pitch throughout the performance. I have found in my
notes, for example, that whenever I remark that I — or the audience —
am getting bored, a notation almost invariably follows indicating a
change of tune and consequently the appearance of a new trancer who
is driven to perform some dramatic feat such as slashing his head or
sitting on hot coals. It is impossible to determine to what extent the
ghiyyata, who are familiar with the trance patterns and musical phrases
of many of the performers, choose to play tlie phrase, and to what
extent the performer himself responds to the boredom and distraction
of the audience by scckino- attention.

The musicians take the major responsibility for leading dancers into
trance, but they are not Svengalian puppeteers who control the emo-
tions, the trancing, and the l)ehavior of the dancers with only an eye
to the dramatic quahty of tiieir perfoniiaiiccs. Tiiey are concerned
about the individual dancers, and will refrain from playing a person's
rih if they feel he ought not to dance that niirht because he has, sav,
been sick with dysentery or the flu. Thev also respect the wishes of a
person's friends and relatives who may ask them not to play his rih
for one reason or another. Finally, they never stop before a trancer
has had enough.

The first section of the hot part is called trish l-l>adra, or the slap
"The music has not yet been analyzed.

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THE 9AMADSHA

of the badra.^ It has been described to me, not in the musical tenns
I expected, but in tenns of its effect upon a participant.

It is the beginning of die hal. The body of the dancer feels caressed. His
body is swoUen and itches. Slowly he becomes absent from his conditions
Ikhiaij l-abawal]* There are '^degrees" which dimb slowly to the head.
When they reach the head^ the cUmcer no longer feeb his body. It is like
bmg drunk. You no longer know your father from your mother or brother.
Your eyes appear normal. You no longer see anything but darkness. You
breathe a little faster. The person looks as thougfi he is fainting. He docs not
swear. He docs not see the jnun; he can still distinguish people. You can
tell the notes apart. You are aware of where you are and what time it is.
The head is dizzy. He is not yet in jidba. There is no head hitting at this
stage. [I had asked a few quesdoiis toward the end of this report.]**

The IJamdushi who gave this description was referring to a man who
danced in line.

The second section of the hot part of the l^dia is called wast
l-fifadra. My informant described this stage of the l^adra as follows:

There is sdll the b>l> but now he is in jidba. He no longer sees anything
but the musicians. The ghiyyata are also in jidba. You can tell because they
begin to sway back and forth. The head throbs. The eyes are open but
cannot see anjthing. The breath is fast. You sweat. You are no longer

conscious of your bodv even if you hit your head with an axe. Your muscles
are swollen. There can be head-hitting. You see 'Aisha, who dances the
hadra in front of you. Her hair is falling all over.

The *A]laliy\ in of Aleknes call the third section the khaimmri. I
have been told that this describes a rhythmic group like the Bukhari
and the Gharbawi. Non-Hamadsha suggest that the word is derived
from khaftiTf or wine.

The dancers are deeper in jidba. There is even more head-hitting. Six axes
at a time! The head is stiff and itches. It palpitates. The person's eyes are
wide open. You do not know where you are. You only know that ^ADsha
is in front of you, and that if you do not dance she will scratch out at you.
She has nails like human fingernails. She is just like a person, except her
feet are like a camel.

^ "Trish" is related to the verb tarsh, to slap or make deaf. "Matnisli" is also
derived from tarsh, and the expression tarsbuh ej-jnun, to be slapped by the jnun,
is used to refer to someone who is slighdy crazy, touched.

**For this description and the following three, see Fn. 13.

THE 9ADRA 207

The khammari may be followed by 'Aisha's badra, but usually it is
not Iplayed until the cold part of the ^dra.

You care only for "^Aibha. You are not afraid. Those who are in hal are
never afraid. The hal is the same at tliis time as during the khammari.
'Aisha does not let people sit at this time.

is clear from these descriptions of the hot part of the b^ulra that
what is important to the dancer is the subjective experience. My in-
foniitfit's comments on the objective condition of the dancer were
probably a response to my own questioning. The tadra is seen as a
single experience that readies a dknax with the appearance of ^Aisha
Qandisha. Dr. Theodora Abel, who has examined the Rorschach re-
sponses of some of my Hamadsha informants, was struck by the way
tliey responded to the test emotionally as a whole, as a total experience.
Dr. Abd suggested that this response may have been analogous to the
total emotioiul response of the trance experience. To the individual
ipamdushi, whether a dancer or a musician, the experience can be
divided only artificially, and these divisions have more to do with the
subjecdve experiences of the body than with the musical sections of
the^dra.

The hot pan of the t^dia ends abruptly. The muqaddim or one of
the dancers who is still in tnnce begins to recite the fat^A. A fatba is
said for anyone who wishes to obtain a blessing (baraka). Women often
ask for children or the cure of menstrual pains; men, too, ask to be
curc4 of various pains and illnesses. Whenever a fatba is said, the per-
son who requested it must give some money. These donations vary
fronji a few francs to 10 or more dirhams. Th^ are the brotherhood's
major source of income. Although the host is not necessarily obliged
to give at this time, he usually offers the nraqaddim a comparatively
large donation (5 to 15 dirhaons) for the fatha that is said over the pa-
tient Sometimes the muqaddim or a sharif will massage the patient or
spit pa him whOe a fatba is recited. Fatbas are said until every spectator
and devotee who wants to receive a blessing is satisfied.

The! Gold Part of the Hadra

When the recitation of tlie fathas is over, the cold part of the hadra
begins. This part is quieter, and it is danced individually rather than in
line. There are usually a few women who will dance through the cold
part in front of the musicians, but most of the performers only have
to dance for a few minutes before they — or rather, their jnun — ore sat-

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THE 9AMADSHA

isfied. When an individual hears his rih, he dances in front of the mu-
sidans. It is at this time that some of the more extreme acts of self-
mutilation occur. These include slashing the head, drinking boiling
water, sitting on hot coals, eating glass, and similar practices. They are
intensely dramatic because the performer, usually one of several danc-
ers, is the center of attention.

The cold part of the hadra seems specifically designed to satisfy in-
dividual needs. If the patient has not danced during the hot part of the
Ijjuidra, or if his jinn has not been satisfied, he will be encouraged to
dance and to enter jidba during this part of the ceremony. DifFerent
ribs will be tried until the one that sends him into jidba is found, and
it will be played until his jinn has been placated. If he should happen
to be suffering from a paralysis, his limb will loosen up while h^ rib
is played and will remain so if he has been satisfied. Usually he experi-
ences some sort of collapse before his jinn has had enough. If the rib is
stopped too soon, not only will his lixnb again tig^itea but he will usu^
ally fall into a cataleptic state. There is ^dom a dramatic ending to
his dance. He will usually walk off to the side and sit down in a slightly
disoriented condition tlmt lasts for ten or fifteen minutes. Very little
attention is paid to him.

Some of the musical phrases that are played on the nira and the
ganbri, the instruments of this part of the ceremony, are associated
with named-jnun. All of them appear to affect only certain individuals
and do not have the wide appeal of the ribs of the hot part. It is said
ditt the individad dancer "coals <k,^» doling ttus put of tte
formance.

During the cold part of the hadra, I do the rest of the jidba. It is the small
surroundings. It is the small hal. I begin to remember myself. My head
returns to the place where it was. My body relaxes. I know where I am
and when it is. If I have liit my head, I still do not know it. There is still
a slight throbbing. My body begins to cool down. When ^ASstiz stops the
badntSodoL*"

The dramatic excitement of the cold part of the hadra usually cul*
minates in the performance of 'Aisha's rih: "O 'Aisha. Rise and place
3rourself in the service of the cause of Allah and the Prophet. . .
Often this takes place just after a dancer has abandoned himself to one

hive never wi messed or beard anyone in traiKe talking in tongues in ^her
the madlna or shantytown ceremonies. Once I heard a man who was said to be
possessed by an unknown jinn, and whom the Hamadsha claimed they could not
cure, talk in an imitation French, a language he did not know. He often talked in
diis language when not in trance.

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THE HADRA 209

of the more extreme acts of self-mutilation. The lights are suddenly
extinguished, and the nh is played and chanted for a few minutes.
'Ai$ha is said to rise out of the ground and dance in front of her de-
votees, many of whom claim to see her at this time. 'Aisha's rih is fre-
quently accompanied by screams of terror, and when the music stops
anc^ the lights go on there are often several children on the floor,
whinipeiiag «>d in a sute of seau-consciousDess.

Th^ ^adra Gnawiyya

The cold of the hadra — it may be interrupted from time to time for
the recitation of fat^^as— -flows directly into the Itadra gnaimyya, which
is "^yed for the women." Usually, in the course of the cold part, cer-
tain phrases are played which throw women in particular into trance
but I which do not seem to satisfy them. A specid repertory of iil|^ is
then played, until the phrase that will satisfy each particular woman is
fbuJid. These are the ribs associated with specific jinniyyas, like Lalla
Mirja and Lalla Mimuna, and consequently with special colors, incenses,
and perfumes. Rags or seances of the color pleasing to a particular
woman's jinn are tied to her if she has not come to the night wearing
that color, and the correct incense is burned. Some women — they, too,
are often called pigs, although they do not actually imitate pigs them-
selves — will begin to dance just as the ceremony seems to be ending
and the audience is exhausted. They will continue for hours before
being satisfied. In organization, the hadra gnawiyya resembles not only
the dance of the Gnawa but also the last part of the ceremonies of a
number of other popular brotherhoods: the Isawiyya, the Jilaliyya, and
the Rabaliyya.

The End of the Ceremony

When all of the participants are satisfied, the hadra ends, more
fathas are recited, and dinner is served. The ceremony seldom lasts less
than four fiours, and I have heard of ceremonies that began at 7 in the
evening and ended at 7 the following morning. Dinner includes cous-
cous and a stew made from the animal sacrificed before the ceremony.
The men and the women eat separately. Musicians and honored guests
are given special portions. The dancers eat with voracious appetites.
The atmosphere is relaxed, if "the hadra lias been a good one" — satis-
fying both individually and generally. After evervone has eaten, the
musicians say a last fatl^ for the host and for the patients who, if he has

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THE ^AMADSHA

danced during the hadra, is usually cured of his paralysis or his posses-
sion. His behavior during the hadra will have been no different from
that of other dancers, and he is the center of attention only when a
fatha is said over him. The musicians leave and, after a little something
has been given to the "poor*" adepts, the money is tallied and set aside.
If a particularly large sum has been collected and the host is known to
be poor, tlie musidans may give him a bit to help pay for the per-
fonnance.

Male dancers who have slashed their heads do nothing for their
wounds. If the l^dra has been good, the dancers will sleep well and
awake revitalized the following morning. If they have been suffering
from paresthetic pains, they will experience at least some relief. In most
cases of jinn attack, the patient wUl seem to have recovered if he has
danced. He may still show some signs of stiffness, depression, and gen-
eral malaise, but these will soon wear off. If the hadra has not been good,
the dancer will spend a restless night, hearing the music of the badra
over and over again, and wiU wake up tired and depressed. It is said
that he will fall sick if he does not perform the badra soon again. In
fact, he usually does perform the b^dra again as soon as possible. As

for the patient he will probably suffer a rdapse if his luulra was not a
good one. Whether their b^dnis have been good or bad, most men
report an inability to have sexual intercourse for at least one night after
dandng. Although they justify this by their desire to remain pure,
after receiving the saint's baraka, it is a source of considerable anxiety
to them.

The Bidonville Ceremony

The ceremonies of the bidonvilles are much simpler in organization
than those of the madina lodges. The sponsor follows the same pro-
cedure as his confrere in the old quarter of the dty; however, the
muqaddim and the team members pky a much more active role in in-
viting guests. They are anxious to earn as much as possible from the
ceremony, and tend to invite all the devotees whom they know will
give generously. It is my impression that many more uninvited guests
attend the bidonville ceremonies. This seems to follow from the more
open life-style in the bidonville, the more public character of its cere-
monies, and the higher percentage of devotees in the overall shanty-
town population. Financial arrangements between sponsor and team
are the same as in the madina, and the cost of a ceremony is on die
average also the same. The sponsor's deposit is divided among the team

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THE 9ADRA 211

membjers, as are all of the other proceeds from the ceremony. The
ghiyyata receive more than any of the other players.

The average bidonville ceremony takes place at night, although after-
noon Ceremonies, which tend to be shorter and less expensive, are more
frequent there than in the madina. Often the hot part of the t^adra is
played out of doors, either in front of the house or in the nearest square.
The music consists most frequently of the rihs of the Gharb. There is
usually trancing and head-slashing. If possible, the patient is made to
dance and is much more in evidence than he would be in a madina cere-
mony at this stage of the hadra. Trancing patterns and dance steps are
the sapie here and throughout the hadra as in the old quarter. Frenzies,
however, tend to be more frequent and extreme.

The hot part of the ^odra may be continued indoors, but often it is
stopped "because the ghita are too loud." The guests enter the house
as soon as the last, long blasts of the ghita are heard. Fat^ arc said for
the host, the patient, and any guest who is willing to pay for one. The
men and some of the women sit down in the cour^^ard. (Although
women in the bidonville ceremonies tend to remain separate from the
men, this division is never as extreme as in the madina. In fact, bidon-
ville women play a much mote active role throughout the entire cere-
mony.) The guests wait for tea, and they may also be given dates and
milk, a fried saltless bread said to fdease the jnun, and black olives,
which are reputed to drive the jnun away. The break between the hot
part of the badra and the subsequent parts is much greater here than
in the old quarter.

Once all of the guests are served, the musicians who are sitting to-
gether in a comer of the courtyard begin to play. Sometimes they will
chant a few words of a dikr to warm themsdves up. Their dikr, ac-
companied by the ganbri, seldom lasts for more than four or five min-
utes. The rest of the evening closely resembles a madina ceremony, but
here the cold part of the ^dra becomes a major part of the ceremony
and is much more frequently interrupted for the recitation of the

fathas. The muqaddim and other team members do their very best to
extract as much money as they can from the audience. They often cam

as much as 60 or 70 dirhams in a night. Their fathas are more dramatic
and often involve massaging, spitting, treading on, or knocking the head
of the person over whom the prayer is said. Occasionally, a fatha-sayer,
who is in trance, will predict the future. The hadra gnawiyya follows
the cold part without anv interruption. The rihs played are chosen on
the basis of the needs of the women dancers. When all of the dancers
have b^ satisfied, the meal with which the ceremony ends is served.

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The
Explanation of
Therapy

Therapy consists of a structured set of procedures for moving an in-
dividual from one state, most generally the state of illness, to another
state, the state of health or proximate health. Concerned as it is with
the individual as a total being, therapy necessarily involves changes in
all significant levels of human existence — the physiological, the psycho-
logi<»]f and the sodo-cultutaL Different therapies appear concerned
primarily with one or another of these levels, often at the expense of
the others. Although the nature of the illness itself frequently forces
the emphasis onto one such level, cultural factors are ohm equally im-
portant determinants.

Qamadsha therapy, too, consists of procedures that move an individ-
ual from a state of iUness to a state of health. *lUness," ''health," and the
therapeutic procedures themselves are grounded in the social and cul-
tural life of at least a certain segment of Moroccan Arab society, and
probably reflect tensions inherent in that life. Although I have not
thought it appropriate to the level of analysis of this study to consider
the origin and nature of such tensions, I have found it necessary to call
attention to some of the more salient tensions as they are reflected in
the Qamadsha complex itself. I have referred, for example, to tensions
between city and country, when considering the relarionship between
the ](|amadsha of the old quarter of Meknes and those of the shanty-
towns; and to stresses and strains in the male role, concomitant with
the segregation of the sexes and the extreme patrilineality and patri-
potestadity of the Arab world, when analyzing the hagiographic leg-
ends.

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THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY 213

The following pages will recall the Moroccan's belief in the inferior-
ity, treacherous nature, and insatiable sexual desire of women. This be-
hef probably reflects an unarticulated if not altogether unconscious fear
of women — a fear which finds expression in the segregation of the sexes
in Morocco and elsewhere in the Arab world, and is probably com-
pensated for by the Arabs' extreme emphasis on male virility. "Male**
and "female" are, however, more than labels of sexual identity; they
refer to a whole complex of behavioral traits and symbolize feeUngs
that are experienced at some level of consciousness by both men and
women and are not, it is suggested, insignificant in the aetiology and
conceptuahzation of illnesses treated by the Hamadsha.

Haniadsha therapeutic procedures are provided with both a "mythic
charter" — the hagiographic legends that integrate the therapeutic with
the "religious" — and a tiic( ictical explanation. Both the "mythic char-
ter" and the theory of thcr: pv can be conceived of as legitimating ap-
paratus which, as such, give authority to the therapeutic system and are
thereby themselves therapeutically significant. It has been suggested
that the hagiographic legends refiect tensions inherent in the individual
Hamdushi and in his social and cultural situation, tensions which may
in fact be responsible for his illness or for the form it takes. That the
dements of the theory — saints, jnun, and baraka — are more than logical
constructs for the explanation of Hamadsha therapy has been impUcit
in my analysis of it. They are imageSy in Godfrey Lienhardt's (1967:
148 et seq.) sense of the word, grounded in the social and cultural
reality of the Hamadsha, of what the Westerner would call psychic
reality.^ They are elements in which I would call the participational
mode of explanation of illness and therapy. They may be considered
signs of psychic states and symbols of sodo-cnltnral processes. The
dual grbimd of these *teages^' serves to strengthen the Icgifhnaiiotis of
therapy. ''Aisfaa Qandlsha and the ^amad^ saints are more than diar-

^ Lienhardt (1967:147 et seq.) speaks of some Dinkt spiriia, or Powers, as Imaga

evoked by certain configurations of experience contingent upon the Dinka's re-
action to their particular physical and social environment." These "images," he
suggests, are *^ active oouitteipait of the pasm dement m Inanaa caqpedeiioe.''

It is perhaps significant diat in oidlnazy English usage we have no word to
indicate an opposile of 'actioos' in ffeutioa to die human self. If the word

'passions,' passiones, were still normally current as the opposite of 'actions,'
it would be possible to say that the Dinka Powers were the images of human
passumes seen as die active source of diese passkmes,

Referende to a Power then, Lienhardt zemarkSi is not mtnly a description of tbe

escperience but an interpretation. In other words, die e]q>erience, say, of guilt is
immediately ardcolated, d not instantiated, in an iiHiftfiiiPeuve idwiw csttmal to
the individuaL

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214

THE HAMAD8HA

acteis in a scoiy. They are looted m both individual and sodil life.
Moreover, the individual's conflicts are immediately and necessarily ex-
pressed in terms congruent with social reality. They are recast in imi-
versal terms. This in itself is of considerable therapeutic import. Ther-
apy involves the articulation and manipulation of these images. Theory
and practice are inseparable within the l^Iamadsha context, as they
probably are within the contexts of other pre-sdentific therapies.

^amadsha therapy is pragmatic and subject to considerable varia-
tion. It treats patients in various conditions of life and health, and it
should be strewed that there was conaderable variation among patients
whom the ]^amadsha successfully cured.' In some cases, a crisis situa-
tion triggered a reaction that did not impress me as being deeply rooted
in the patient's psyche; rather, the patient seemed to be following one
of several cultural models appropriate to his situation.* Other patients,
however, seemed to be suffering from hysterical, depressive, or even
schizophrenic reactions. It is possible that a number of chronic cases
were kept ambulatory by their intense involvement with the (^amadsha
and their frequent performances of the ba^dra.

What follows is an examination of the elements of l^amadsha therapy
which are recognized in Western theories of psychotherapy as thera-
peutically effective. The suggestions which I make about these thera-
peutically s^nificant factors must be considered hypotheses based on
a detailed consideration of the ^Jamadsha complex; they point ahead to
a sequel to this study in which they will be tested against family and
individual case histories. I have given particular emphasis to the social
and psychological dimensions of fjamadsha therapy, not simply because
I bdieve them to be the most significant therapeutically but because of
the limitations of my own training and research opportunities. Primary
attention has been placed on ceremonies involving the b^dra; the pil-
grimage is considered as a complement to them.

'Ortigues (1966) also stresses the varying personality types who become pos-
sessed by spirits in Senegal

*The response to suioi crises may be considered an acute anxienr reaction of
short duration, whose symptomatology may include incoherence or thought and
delusional and hallucinatory activity. It has been claimed that such reactions are
more common in primitive dtan in advanced societies. They may result from the
failure to perform customary rites (Wirtkower 1971). It must be remembered that
alleged failure rn perform ritual obligations may itself — as I l)elievc is often the
case for the Haniadsha — be symbolic of some breach in the individual's personal
moralt^ (cf. Crapanzano 1972).

j th£ explanation of therapy 215
Group Support

Group support, one of the most frequently cited therapeutic factors
in "primitive" as well as "modem" psychotherapy, plays an important
role in the Hamadsha cures. The ailing individual is not isolated and
ignored, but becomes a patient who is the concern of the whole group.
The group, which consists of family, friends, and neighbors as well as
the Hamadsha, not only offers the patient sympathy, encouragement,
and the hope of cure, but also mobilizes itself to cure the patient of his
troubles. This mobiUzation serves to alter the relations between the
patient and the members of the group themselves. Men and women, for
example, are in closer, more intimate contact during the preparation
for a ceremony. It is possible that such a rearticulation of social rela-
tions may help to reduce socially generated tensions that are in part
responsible for the patient's condition. Mobilization of the group, more-
over, involves sacrifices of time and money that serve the patient as an
assurance of the group's care and concern. A responsibility not to let
the group down is placed upon him.

The group also provides the patient with an interpretation of his ill-
ness, or reinforces his own or the diviner's interpretation, and this acts
to reduce the anxiety that accompanies ignorance of the illness' cause
and cure. Fatna, for example, was convinced by friends and neighbors
that her child Fatima was sick because she had failed to carry out her
promise to sacrifice a chicken to Sidi 'Ali. Members of the group often
advocate such interpretations out of a vested interest in thcni. They,
too, have often suffered, or are liable to suffer, from illnesses of similar
origin. In supporting n supernatural explanation of the illness, the group
affirms that the patient is not necessarily responsible for his own con-
dition. Feelings of shame, remorse, and "guilt" are deflected. The pa-
tient no longer broods over himself. This technique may be of partic-
ular significance in depressive reactions. Moreover, since the patient is
not lield responsible for his condition, he is able to act on socially un-
acceptable impulses both before and during curing ceremonies without
incurring public censure. These include the refusal to carry out tasks
normally expected of him, excesses of self-mutilation, homosexual ad-
vances to other dancers, or acts of autoeroticism.

During ceremonies the group — the audience — becomes more than a
backdrop for the patient's cure. The group actively participates in the
cure. Its members not only tend to the patient's needs, but also often
dance and trance themselves. Thev serve as models for the patient.
They too must placate the jnun they follow. Ailing individuals who

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THE ^AMADSHA

are unable to sponsor their own ceremonies attend in the hope of a
cure, and it is not unusual for the patient to tend to their needs. The
recitation of the fatha intensifies group sentiment. The patient is made
to understand in dramatic terms that he is not alone in his condition,
and that many others who have suffered in the past as he is now suffer-
ing have recovered. This "sharing of illness" also occurs at the pilgrim-
age centers, where the patient encounters many other ailing men and
women and hears stories of extraordinary cures.

The ceremonies not only permit I^amadsha within the group to
dance and trance and work through their own personal conflicts, but
also serve a cathartic function for other members of the audience. The
audience, like the audiences of exordstic seances in Burma, does not
consist "as might be the case in certain theatrical contexts, of jaded
spectators, seeking entectdmnent to shake them from their boiedcmi or
to permit them to escape their routine concerns** (Spiro 1967: 196). The
audience lives through the conflicts that are symbolically played out
before them and that undoubtedly have deep roots within theur cultural
tradition. This catharsis, too, may serve to reduce social tensions that
are in part re^nsible for the patient's condition. Other tensions, such
as tensions between men and women, are expressed in less obvious ways.
Women in the madina ceremonies, f6r example, must wait to participate
until the men have completed their chanting; at the end of the cere-
mony, however, a single woman whose jinn has not had enough can
keep the musicians playing and the men waiting for hours.

Patient PARTiaPATioN

The patient plays a role in his own cure. Often he must help with
the preparations for a ceremony or a pilgrimage. He must dance and
trance during the night and, if possible, repeat the fatt^i for others.
Should he happen to be host, he must tend to the needs of his guests.
On pilgrimages, he must carry out various ritual activities such as cir-
cumambulating the tombs of the Qamadsha saints, bathing in the 'Ayn
Kabir, or smearing himself with henna from 'Aisha*s grotto. After the
pilgrimage or night, he is often required to follow certain rules. These
may be stereotyped and appear arbitrary; still, apart from whatever
symbolic role they play, they give the patient the feeling that he is
doing something for himself. He is keeping his jinn or jinniyya at bay.

The importance of patient participation in the ](^bma<kha cures
should not, however, be exaggerated. The patient's role is not as active
as in psychoanalysis or psychodrama. He is passive before the exordst-

THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY 217

seers, who uncover the source of his troubles and suggest a cure; he is
passive before the saints, the jnun, and even the music of the ghita.
This passivity can be considered as indicative of the patient's basic exis-
tential stance toward his world or as a period of socially sanctioned
regression to a stage of dependency which may be of therapeatic value.
During the cures, and especially dutii^ the pilgrimage, the patient is
remove^ from his normal position in society with its concomitant de-
mands and pressures; he is given a respite.

The patient is not neoesarily the center of attention during cere-
monies, although he is the manifest cause for the ceremony. Indeed, he
is ofceuj almost completely ignored. I remember, on several occasions,
leaving la night only to discover that I had not made a single notation
about the patient. This lack of attention during the formal cwnng may
be of significance in the cures of certain hysterical individuals whose
dramatic symptoms and life histories suggest that feelings of neglect
and the desire to be the center of attention are important etiological
factors for their condition. The group sometimes appears to treat them
with thfc same beUe indifference with which they treat themselves.

Patiknt-Curer Relationship

Although the importance of the patient-curer relationship has been
stressed in explanations of the effectiveness of psychoanalysis, hypnosis,
shamanistic cures, and other therapeutic techniques, I have not found
this relationship to be particularly significant in the Hamadsha cures.
I do not mean to imply that the role of the curers — ^the exorcist-seer,
the saint's descendant, or the muqaddim of a team — ^is unimportant.
It is important, especially when the curer has a strong, charismatic per-
sonality, I am suggesting, rather, that neither a deep transference rela-
tionship with archaic features nor an important personal bond is estab-
lished between piitient and curer. Whatever transference is established
is immediately deflected to supernatural agents — the saints and the jnun.
Even the power of the curer is conceived in supernatural terms, in
terms of baraka. This, in my opinion, is not simply an instance of de-
fensive projection. The saints and jnun are a given in the patient's
world, providing him with a symbolic schema for the interpretation of
his experiences. It is on this level that relationships are manipulated.
The patient's relationship with 'Aisha Qandisha, for example, is funda-
mentally changed.

The passive role of the patient is reflected in his relationship with
the curer. Even when the curer plays an important, personal role in the

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THE HAMADSHA

treatment of the patient, he does not attempt to elicit confessions from
the patient or to review his life. He tries to suggest to or persuade the
patient that he has in fact been attacked by a jinn, that the jinn requires
a sacrifice or a night, and that the patient, if he follows the commands
of the jinn, wiU be cured. The curer*s suggestions are not patient-
spedfic. He reiterates what the group and the patient know already or
at least suspect.

Insight and Suggestion

No attempt is made either by the curer or by members of the pa-
tient's group to give him insight into the nature of his problems. There
is no psychic probing in the Qamadsha cures. Since the patient is not
responsible for his condition, any self-examination would be inappro-
priate. Instead, the patient is provided with an interpretation and dy-
namic explanation of his condition. He is urged by the group and by
individual curers to accept this explanation. Techniques designed to
increase his suggestibility play an important role in ^amadsha cures.
Often dreams, especially at the sain^ tombs, will be interpreted in
terms of the explanations proffered and considered authoritative.

Cult Membership

The patient who has been treated by the Hamadsha is not the '*same**
person that he was before his illness. Most ^amadsha cures do not end
with the pilgrimage or ceremony. In the case of the pilgrimage, the
patient forms at die very least a strong dependency on the saint and
perhaps on *Aisha Qand&ha. Although he does not necessarily become
a devotee of the Hamadsha, his subsequent experiences will usually be
interpreted in terms of the saint and 'Aisha. In the case of the cere-
monies, the patient often recovers but is required to follow certain rules
to please his jinn. Usually he will have to perform the hftdra from tune
to time and sponsor an annual ceremony to commemorate his cure. If
he fails to poform or to sponsor a ceremony, there is a strong likeli-
hood that he will again fall ill In other words, the patient becomes a
member of the ^Jamadsha cult.

Cult membership provides the patient with a new social status. He is
now a ^amdushi or a devotee of the Hamadsha. His social relations
are now articulated with respect to this new status. Others must take
cognizance of it. A husband whose wife becomes a Hamdushiyya must,
for example, sponsor an annual ceremony for her and permit her to at-

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THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY

219

tend the ceremonies of other devotees. iMembersIiip in the cult enlarges
the patients' social network and, at least in the case of the bidonville
Hamadsha, gives them the opportunity to develop multiplex relations
in a new and alien environment. Should the patient happen to become
a member of a team or zawiya, he is entitled to the benefits of this asso-
ciation.

With a change in social status, there is a change in social identity
and in self-image. The patient is treated as a Hamdushi or a devotee
of the Hamadsha. Within the cult, especially if his behavior during the
hadra is dramatic or if he should happen to know many htanies, the
patient is considered to have a great deal of prestige — prestige which
he might not have had before. Outside the cult, he is treated with a
mixture of awe and respect by other Moroccans of his background.
He has, after all, been in contact with the jnun ;ind, as a trancer, he is
not without his share of baraka. However, he is looked down upon by
other, better educated Moroccans as a poor wretch and a victim of bar-
barous superstition.** The patient is well aware of this characterization.
Witiiin the group he has prestige and outside it humihation. This hu-
miliation should not be ignored. It may well reflect — and support — the
patient's sclf-imagc, and be of some secondary gain.

Membersliip in the cult also reinforces the patient's faith in the
Hamadsha and in their world-view. Again and again, at private and
public ceremonies, he is given the opportunity to witness their success.
Attendance at the annual nmscm renews his faith in the Haiiuuisha
saints and their descendants. Finally, and most importantly, he is given
the opportunity to perform the hadra and as we shall see, to work out
— in a structured, albeit symbolic, fashion — conflicts which are respon-
sible for his condition.

Trance, Abreaction, and G^tharsis^

Tbd Hamadsha consider the trance to be of paramount importance
for their cures. They say that their patient must dance until his jinn is
"satisfied.** Usually, to satisfy his jinn, the patient must enter jidba, a
deep frenetic trance that in many cultures is interpreted as a state of
po^es^on. The Hamadsha themselves do not necessarily explain jidba
as poswssion; it is simply that the patient must enter jidba before his
jinn is said to have had enough.

*■ 1 he Hamadsha are lefeixed to by many of them as "black'*—* poisfiile indi-
cation of lower stanis.
'See the Appendix for factors that appear to induce trance for the l^amadsha.

Copy riyt ilea iriaiciial

220

THE IjEAMADSHA

I would like to suggest that trance is in fact an important element in
Hamadsha therapy, and affects the individual both physiologically and
psychologically. The physiological effects of trance and possession, like
those of shock therapy, have not been worked out. William Sargant
(1964), who has considered the problem from the perspective of Pav-
lovian neurophysiology, compares trancing and possession to narco-
therapy, psychoanalysis, shock treatment, leucotomy, techniques of
religious conversion, and brainwashing. He suggests that all of these
techniques produce a state of emotional exhaustion and collapse in the
subject. This collapse involves the erasure of former conditioned pat-
terns and beliefs and a heightened state of suggestibility.*

The role of collapse in Igbmadsha therapy presents a problem. Some
trancers fall into a state of collapse before they begin to dance and
enter jidba; others collapse in the middle of the dance; and still others
do not collapse at alL No ceremony is terminated with a dancer in a
state of collapse. It is not altogether dear, however, what Sargant means
by "collapse." He suggests that the terminal sleep of the possessed is
the period of complete inhibitory collapse, but this does not appear to
be a satisfactory solution. Most trancers recover from a possession state
well before retiring. They usually show signs of renewed vitality, well-
being, and recovery from die symptoms of an attack by a jinn.^

Sv^lgestion does appear to play an important role in any case. This
applies to danceis and members of the audience as well.

•Sargant's work has been criticized for assuming a ncurophysiological basis for
the kind of "collapse stare" produced, say, by the ncry preaching of John Westley
(Prince 1968:132). Nevertheless, his observations concerning the erasure of former
oonditioiied pateems and bdieft, including a tendency in die so-called *S]]cni^
paradoxical phase" for such patCems to turn from positive to negative and from
negative to positive, and the heightened suggestibility of the subject during periods
of emotional exhaustion, are of considerable significance.

'Prince (1968:131) suggests diat Sargant confuses the inidal collapse widi the
final sleep of exhaustion. Sargant himself recognizes that the threshold for col-
lapse probably varies with the temperament of the trancer. One might well add
that it also varies with his life circumstances, including such factors as stress,
and his experience of die trance.

Some persons can produce a state of trance and dissodadon in themselves,
or in others, with a decreasing need for strong and repeated emotional
stresses, until it may become so much a conditioned pattern of brain activ-
ity that it occus widi only minor stresses and difficulties; for example, in
the primidve religious context, at the renewed beat of a dram, or the scream-
ing roar of the rhombos (Sargant 1964:103).

Experienced trancers among the Hamadsha enter trance with greater ease than
inejq>erienced ones. The first notes of their particular ri^ will often send them into
a deep trance or into a state of collapse.

; THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY 221

States of possession or trance have also been used by numerous religions to
try to help the spectator, as well as the possessed person, to accept the
relevant doctrine as true, if tlic trance is accompanied by a state of mental
disKxs^tioii, person ei^periencing it can b« pfofmmdty iaflncnced in his
snbse^uent thinking and behavior. Even if the speceatois lemam unmoved
and devoid of any emotional excitement, it may stiU help to persuade them
of tfaij tmdi of the belief professed, tspedaiSfy if they have been led to tiiink
that a trance means that the person concerned is possessed by, or in com-
monii^tion with, a certain god. (Sargant 1964:103)

As we have seen, members of the I;lamadsha audience are often on the
brink I of dissociation, oscillating between nonnal and dissociated states,
or in a state of dissociation.

The period following collapse, whether initial, medial, or terminal,
is of extreme importance. Not only is the trancer in a state of extreme
suggestibility but, if Sargant is correct, he undergoes an erasure, or par-
tial erasure, of previously learned behavioral patterns and beliefs. New
behavior patterns and beliefs may be instilled, or old ones, including
"neurotic" ones, may be renewed and reinforced. Of paramount im-
portance is the suggestion that the experience of such a state is of thera-
peutic value. The jinn has been satisfied!

The extreme suggestibility of the individual in either case calls at-
tention to the "learning" aspect of therapeutic procedures like the
Hamadsha's. Belief in tlie Hamadsha and in their lore is instilled, rccon-
firmed, and reinforced. The lore includes the Hamadsha's "psychology"
and "pathology." Both of these have a profound effect upon the in-
dividual

Psychologies pertain to a dimension of realitv that is of the greatest and
most continuous subjective relevance for all individuals. Therefore the
dialectic between the theory and realit\' affects tlie individual in a palpably
direct and intensive marmer. (Berger and Luckmann 1967:176)

In other words the socially accepted interpretation of psychic reality —
the psychology — "realizes itself forcefully in the phenomena it purports
to interpret." This point is of extreme importance if, as I suggest, Ha-
madsha therapy involves the manipulation of "images" of psychic re-
ality.

The erasure of behavioral patterns and beliefs that Sargant postulates
may be related to the "regressive behavior" often observed in hypnotic
and ceremonial trance. It has been found that a person who is deprived

Copy riyt ilea iriaiCiial

222

THE HAMADSHA

for a sufficiently long period of access to "the usual clues for maintain-
ing a normal sense of reality" becomes oversensitive to both internal
and external stimuli and appears vulnerable to both (Gill and Brenman
1966:5). This state of heightened sensitivity and vulnerability, corre-
sponding rouglily to what the Hamadsha call hal, is often followed by
"outbursts from the internal ivorld in one form or another'* (Gill and
Brenman 1966:6). This second stage may itself correspond to what
the Ijlamadsha call jidba and interpret as possession by a jinn, or at
least as the result of jinn activity. Such states are considered to be
therapeutically significant.

Es^Ianations of the curative value of such "outbursts** have em-
phasized dtlier the positive value of these regressive states — ^"regression
in the service of the ego"— or their "cathartic function.** The patient is
given a sodaUy sanctioned opportunity for die "stormy discharge" of
emotions rooted in traunutic experiences of the past or in psychic con-
flicts of the present, and he experiences a reduction of anxiety and a
consequent alleviation or elimination of anxiety-produced symptoms.
He **works through** or "acts out** his conflicts, or "relives** his trau-
matic experiences. Although the value of emotional discharge has been
recognized at least since the publication of Breuer and Freud's Studies
in Hysteria in 1895, it should be stressed that the mere outburst of
emotion is not necessarily of therapeutic value (Gill and Brenman
1966:356). It may indeed have the contrary effect. I would suggest that
ail such outbursts must be structured if they are to be of positive thera-
peutic value, and that the structures must reflect the symptom-produc-
ing conflicts.

This point needs elaboration — and here I am indebted to L^vi-Strauss*
article "The Efficacy of Symbols*' (1963a). The cure involves a two-
fold process. First, a conffict originally existing on an emotional levd
or in the unconscious is made explicit Second, an opportunity for the
working out or resolution of conflicts thereby made explicit is offered.
The maldng explicit of unconscious processses may involve — or claim
to involve— the uncovering of actual, lived-through experiences, as in
the case of psychoanalysis, or it may provide the patient 'Svith a
language, by means of which unexpressed and otherwise inexpressible
psychic states can be immediately expressed,** as in certain shamanistic
cures" (Livi-Strauss 1963a: 198). In the case of psychoanalysis and sim-
ilar therapies, the rendering of unconscious processes factually articu-
late provides a means for their "free development** and their resolution.

' This may be lekted to die dq|fee of tnceriorization ^pically encouraged by a
given culture.

ghted material

TH£ EXPLANATION OF THERAPY 223

This development and resolution may be subject to stnct structnial
laws, Ibut it always remains on a personal, particularistic level. The psy-
choanalytic patient **constnict5 an individual m3rth," as Levi-Stranss
puts it, 'Vith elements drawn from his past" (1963:199). In the case
of shamanistic cures — and ^amadsha cures as well — ^the symbolic ex-
pression of unconscious processes is followed by a highly structured —
ritualized-Hresolution of symbolically expressed conflicts. Resolution
here Is impersonal and universalistic. The patient "receives from the
outside a social myth, which does not correspond to his former per-
sonal state" (L^-Strauss 1963a: 199).

Whether or not the structural laws of both types of cures are the
same, as L6vi-Strauss suggests, there is a manifest difference In the ex-
istential stance of the patient vis-a-vis the therapeutic system. In the
case of psychoanalysis, the patient is active and the therapist is passive.
In the case of the shamanistic cure, the patient is passive and the shaman
Is active.^ The shaman is an authoritarian figure, often identified with
a mythic figure, who **molds" the patient's unarticulated conflicts into
a sodally given schema. If the elements of the schema are btui^es of
psychic states, grounded in social and cultural reality (as I beUeve is
true for the Hamadsha), then the shaman's symbolic manipulations are
of considerable therapeutic importance. In any event, the special nature
of the dialectical relationship between "psychology'' and "psyche"
probably permits the carer to modify, at least temporarily, the patient's
psychic rodlty. Smce suggestion plajrs a manifestly important role, tech-
niques such as trancing, which increase the patient's suggestibility, are
especially important in shamanistic cures.

The Hamadsha "pathology" and "theory of therapy" not only ex-
plain these "outbursts," but structure their very expression. Theor\' and
practice cannot be separated here. In the simplest terms, ^Ai'sha Qan-
disha or whatever jinn Is held responsible for the patient's condition is
said to take possession of the patient or, in the case of certain men, to
force him to slash his head. When the jinn has been satisfied, it not
only leaves the patient but is transformed into the patient's support. A
symbolic transformation has taken place which may involve at least a
temporary restructuring of "psychic reality" — and perhaps, as L6vi-
Strauss (1963:201) would suggest, even a physiological transforma-
tion.i«

* Li Hamadsha cuies, where the role of die carer is not as hnportant as in ceitain

shamanistic cures, the patient is still a passive actor and nor an innovator.

"It is assumed in the following analysis that the patient is a man. The manner
in which j^amadsha therapy functions for the female is not considered, because of
the qMMdneBS of my data coooeniiiig women. This has lesnhed from the sttkt

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224

THE HAMADSHA

The illnesses for which *Aisha Qandisha is responsible and which the
Qamadsha are able to cure include paralysis of the limbs, "pinching
bones,*' sudden deafness, blindness, and mutism unaccompanied by or-
ganic lesions, children's diseases, menstrual difficulties, and barrenness.
(*Aisha Qandisha is also able to limit a man's virility or render him
impotent, but Hamadshft cures are not usudly effective in these coses.)
All of the iUness caused by 'Aisha Qandisha prevent the patient from
actively peif omiing his social roles and coocomitant tasks. He is un-
able to meet the demands of a **male^oniinated" society like Morocco,
which is organized along the lines of extreme patrilineality and patri-
potestality. The symptomatology of many of the illnesses — ^paralysis of
the limbs, pinching bones, impotence— suggests an inability to play the
male role; barrenness and children's diseases prevent the continuation of
the male line. Illness, especially for men, is conceived at some level of
consciousness as an inability to live up to the ideal standards of male
conduct. That is, illness is associated with being rendered a woman.
Feelings of inadequacy, weakness, and impotence are symbolized by the
female.

This conception of illness as feminization may indeed be rooted, as
the analysis of the kgeaduy cycle of Sidi *Ali and Sidi Ahmed sug-
gests, in the relationship between father and son. In order to obtain Ids
father's baraka— to live up to the male ideal— the son must play the
passive role before the father (and identify with the mother). If he
refuses this solution, he finds himself incapable of meeting the ideal It
seems likely that many but by no means all of the illnesses for which
the l^^bmadsha are called in have such an origin. Certainly— and here I
am stepping out of the limits set by the level of analysis of this study —
the often aifoitrary, haish, and inconsistent behavior of the Moroccan
fadier toward his son would seem to preclude the possibility of the
son's strong and positive identification with him. It provides the son
with the ideal but demands behavior contrary to the ideal. The son
must remain passive— unmanly— before the father. He must be as
woman to the father.

Women are stereotyped not simply as weak and helpless, but as
treacherous, whimsical, untmstworiliy, unfaithful, and sexually insa-
tiable." They are the image of 'Alsha Qandisha and must be pacified

segregation of the sexes in Morocco. It should be pointed out, however, that
women nrdy dadi thdr heads. The jinniyyas appear to fimctioa as wappotdoa
doubles for them. They aie c^Mble, however, of tuning on their female fot
lowers, and may serve as an externalized conscience.

*^This aspect of the fieure of the woman suggests to the psychoanalytically or-
thodooc diat the modm has in some manner betrayed the son to the father.

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THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY

225

and controlled. 'Ai'sha Qandisha and the other female jnim are^ at least
for the majority of I;^amadsha, the cause of their illnesses; they must be
placated and transformed. Thi&-^e cure— is accomplished by means
of the saints' baraka.

The cure involves an attempted resolution of two oppowag figures
— 'Aisha Qandisha and the fjbmadsha saints. As they are described in
kgenil and folklore, they represent a number of different elements
within the Moroccan's experiential world and are commonly, though
less consciously, associated with still other elements. These are sum-
marized below; the less conscious associations, which have been derived
from life-history material not examined in this work, appear in paren-
theses

smi*AU

'aISHA QANDISHA

AND Smi AHMED

Jinn

Saint

Earth

Water

Sun

(low)

Green

(high)

LiarK

ugnc

xjuick— rcu

wniic

' (interior)

(exterior)

Female

Male

Bkx>d (menstmation)

(semen)

Infertility

Fertility

Impotence

ViriUty

Disease

Health

Dcadi

Life

Two-faced

Single-faced

WTiimsical

Constant

Bad

Good

Demanding

Giving

Destrucdve

Constructive

; (castrating)

(virilizing)

(mother)

(father)

1 (mother's family)

(father's family)

1 Possession

Mysticism

Jidba

Hal (^/dikr)

1 Dream (nightmare)

Dream

Bad luck

Good luck

, Sacrifice

Sacrifice

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226

THE HAMADSHA

To these the anthropologist, as an outsider, might well add to the list of
*Aisha*s associations 'low tiadttion,*' Dionysian, and expressed, and, to
the saintly associations, "high tradition," Apollonian, and repressed.
It is clear that these two figures span several spheres of reality and are
subject to a complex logic which must **€f* the demands of these dif-
ference spheres^ (Beiger and Luckmann 1967:40).

The figure of the saint, who is representative of the ideal social and
moral order, is not altered in the attempted resolution of these polar
opposites. He makes no special demands on the patient, although the
patient may have promised him a sacrifice or some other gift.^ Despite
the saint's ability to master the everyday affairs of the masculine world,
as the legends attest; the role is too specialized, too removed horn the
daily concerns of the average patient, to provide a model with which
he can identify. (This may in fact be indicative of the child's image
of the father.) Rather, the saint provides the patient with baraka, the
symbolic equivalent of semen, virility, and the principle of patrilineal-
ity, and it is this baraka which is held responsible for the patient's cure.
It revitalizes— "revirilizes" is perhaps more accurate— the patient and
enables him to overcome his illness— which is, as we have seen, asso-
ciated with femininity, his feelii^ of inadequacy and weakness, and
his inability to live up to the standards of male behavior. It enables him
to bring about the transformation of *Alsha Qandisha.

Resolution of the opposition between the figures of saint and jinniyya
is attempted by transforming 'Aisha Qandisha. Although she retams all
of her chthonian-Dionysian associations, she ceases to be a socially dis-
ruptive force and, in fact, like the Eumenides, becomes a support of
the moral and social order.** She no longer takes away the patient's
health, virility, fertility, or good fortune. Rather, she preserves them.
The transformation is not simply a change in her character. It demands
a change in the patient's relationship— in bis character— to her. The
patient must first placate 'Alsha and then follow her commands.

" As a ^iven of the world in which the individual is bom, they serve to organize
his psychic resdity; they become images of his experience which most be con-
gruent virh socio-cultural processes and perhaps even physiological ones.

"The adepts of the urban zawiyas arc required to work for the saint. 'Aisha
Qandisha does not pla\- as important a role for them. They must work for the
saint in order to receive his baraka — to remain healthy, suooessfiil, and virile.
They do nor identify with the sninr, bur work for him as a son works for his
father. Failure to work for the saint is conceived of as a loss of baraka and con-
sequent vulnerability to attacks by 'Ai^ha Qandisha and other jnun. The saint
himself can do no harm.

"That such a change is possible Ls suggested by ^Aisha's ability to appear as a
beauty or a hag; however, she is usually considered to be more dangerous when
she manifests heiseif as a beanty (Crapanzano 1971).

THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY 227

Placatioii mvolyes *A&ha Qandisfaa's taking possesaon of the patient
and o^ten f ordng him to symbolically enact his ovm castratioiir-that iSp
to shsn his head la order to be cured, the man must become a woman.
Thanlfis to the baraka of the saint, he is able to pass through this femini-
zation and become a man again. From a psychological point of view, he
is prodded with a structured and socially sanctioned opportuni^ to
regress and to act, at least symbolically, on the unarticulated desire to
become a woman. There are many ways,** Bruno BetteUieim (1955:
107) has written, ''in which man can ded with a socially unacceptable
desire. One way is to dramatize it, act it out, and through intense but
in the long run only token satisfaction, try to rid himself of it perma^
nentiy.'* This ''acting out^ appears in the Qamadsha case to have at kast
some ixbmediate therapeutic value.

Having once placated die jinniyya, the patient must obey her com-
mands,' or she will attack him and make him ilL These commands —
wearing certain colors, burning special incense, making periodic sacri-
fices, and the like— seem arbitrary. I have found in the anal)^ of life
histories that the breaking of a conunand is in fact, at one level symbolic
of a breach in public or private morality and at another, symbolic
of the feeUngs— the Westerner would call them "guik^— wluch tiiis
breach has produced in the individual. The following example may help
to clarify my point.

Driss became a Hanidushi, he explained, after he laughed at the Hamadsha
who were performing in the center of his village. He fell to the ground and
was raised up by the spectators and forced to dance. He became a follower
of 'Ai'sha Qandisha and followed her commands explicitly. Many years later
—he was 14 at the time of the above incident — he again fell sick. "All my
bones stung. My body was heavy. I could not move. My nose bled." He
did not know why he had fallen sick again. He had forgotten to bi^ some
black jaWi, he lemembered, and had not burned any incense in a little altar,
vrbidi he had constructed for ^Alsha, for several days before falling sick.
He continued to reminisce. His aster had been struck at the time and had
wanted him and his wife to accompany them on a pilgrimage (ziyara). He
had refused. He was sure that his sister's husband iiad instructed her to ask
him to go with her to Sidi ^AWs. He wanted to split the cost. (Driss, I had
learned on another occasion, did not get on well with his sister's husband,
who somehow cheated him out of some money. Driss was not related to
him by blood)

Driss' case illustrates a dynamic that I have encountered in many
Qamadsha life histories. The circumstances leading to the initial attack
by the jinn were such that a Westerner, given the Moroccan Arab

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228

THE ^AMADSHA

moral code, would describe them as having "caused a guilty con-
science." (In this case they were perhaps stereotyped and masked still
another cause of guilt.) The very stance of the individual vis-i-vis him-
self and others within his world — ^therapy icself-^s here articulated in
what Marie-C6cile and Edmond Ortigues, in their study of the Oedipus
complex in Senegal (1966:196-197), have called "the novelistic mode
of individual adventure and inner guilt," but "in the tragic mode of
persecution by the powers of destiny." Having once defined their
"feelings" in terms of the jinn, the l^amadsha will interpret every sub-
sequent "guilt reaction" of similar magnitude with reference to the jinn.
Extreme reactions are often somatized in the form of paralysis or other
conversion reactions. They are said to resak £rom a fulure to obey the
jinn's commands. Tliese ailiitraiy commands become symbolic ma^
which may cover the actual moral fault (Crapanzano 1972).

'Aisha Qandisha is transformed from a force disruptive to the social
and moral order into a force to preserve that order. So long as her fol-
lower obeys her conmiands, he receives her support. So long as he
follows his society's moral code, she enables him to live up to the ideak
of male dominance, superiority, and virility which are congruent with
the extreme patrilineality and patripostestality of the Arab world. It is
^A&ha Qandisha who keeps him a man, and not the saints. They provide
only the baraka with which to transform her, and not a model with
which to identify. Neither sakit is represented as a strong, virile figure
who has overcome the very ills his baraka is able to cure.** Sidi *Ali
rendered himself a woman by playing the passive role before Bu^bid
Sharqi and the other saints; ^di Ahmed rendered himself a woman by
S3nnbolically castrating himself.*'

If the follower fsik to obey her commands, she attacks him and

"To be sore, at least in die cides, die l^amadsha cur es t he jnun they work
with — are not articulated to the lineage stroctnre as diey are in Senegal. The in-
dividual Moroccan — and not his family or lineage — becomes dependent upon the
jnun. No communal altar is established (Ortigues 1966:158).

* It is noteworthy that the saints are also not figured as econoniically successful.

"The fact that both saints retain their baraka despite their feminization is
suggestive of the roots of the Arab male's attitude toward sex. Great emphasis
is placed on the number of ejaculations, and not on foreplay or prolonged coitus.
There are tales told, not without admiration, of men who ejacokted so many
times in a night that their "vein," which transforms blood into semen, was unable
to keep up with them. They ejaculated blood. Such men were said to have had
12 to 15 ejaculations in the night. The transformation of ^Aisha by means of the
bafakft of the saint may mirror the man's conquest and "domestication" of the
woman by the sexual act. The woman, who is often foreign to the patrilineage,
or at least the household, just as ^Aisha Qandisha is foreign, coming as she does
from the Sudan, is dangerous and must be transformed— domesticated.

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THE EXPLANATION OF THERAPY

229

makes him sick. He becomes as woman. 'Aisha seems to funcdon as a
sort of externalized superego.^^ Her transformation reflects the master-
ing of feelings of inadequacy, femininity, and remorse, resultant in part
from tlie moral fault, and the conversion of these feelings into a socially
and morally positive force. Mastery involves not a positive identifica-
tion with a male figure but the individual's regression to a state in which
he is able to act out these feelings and, at the same time, to chastise
himself through acts of self-mutilation or simply through membership
in a cult looked down upon by other members of his society.

The roots of these feelings of inadequacy and femininity must be
sought in the lives of the Hamadsha. It is impossible here to determine
whether they are rooted in a single trauma — such, for example, as cir-
cumcision—or in a more complex behavioral syndrome, such as an
authoritarian father, too arbitrary and aloof for the child to form a
positive identification with him. In any case, the hadra does provide
the individual with an occasion to discharge tensions associated with
these fcehngs in a socially acceptable manner. The cures may result
from anxiety reduction following the reenactment of past traumata, or
the acting out of repressed impulses; or they may result from an actual
restructuring of psychic reality — a change in personality. It may be
the case that these elaborate symbolic transformations are epiphenome-
nal and of little therapeutic consequence. The Hamadsha may indeed
be compelled to relive the past's experiences and to renew their rela-
tionship with *Aisha Qandisha again and again in the hope of achieving
permanent cure, and in fact obtain but temporary relief from the in-
delible scars of their past. That the majority of Hamadsha patients
become devotees of the brotherhood and must periodically perform the
hadra, enter jidba, and on occasion slash their heads suggests that there
is no permanency to the cure, that there is no personality change of
long standing, and that the Hamadsha are destined to reenact their
suffering. It is, after all, written.

"Cansevcr in his study of the effects of circumcUoa on Turkish yoath (1955)
notes that the female is often perceived as the castrator. It should be pointed out
ttiac in die area troiu wliich the I;;:lamadsha are recruited the mother leads her
son to die house vrhen he is to be circamcised. The lather iisailhr disappears
for the occastoo. The boy, who is usually under 5, is circumcised by a barber,
usually a stranger to him, and held by an elder man of his village or nimily ev en.
Immediately thereafter he is placed on his mother's back and wrapped up in
blankets. Warmth is said to aid the heafioff. Hk modwr, v/ho had been waitn^
in front of the door to the house, surrounded by villagers and musicians, begins
to dance. Often she has pulled down the back of her dress "so that her clothes
will not get all bloody," the boy's penis being pressed against her naked, sweating
back. Men who leninnber the event lecall with hocrar the tdng of the tAy
sweat oo ilieir blwding penlset*

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Appendix

Studies of trance behavior throughout the world have called attention
to a number of factors that induce trance. I will consider here those
factors which may play a role in the induction of trance among the
Hamadsha.

Sensory Deprimahn and Sensory Overloading

It has been suggested that trance and possession states, like other
altered states of consciousness, "may be produced in any setting by any
agents or maneuvers which interfere with the normal inflow of sensory
or proprioceptive stimuli, the normal outflow of motor impulses, the
normal 'emotional tone,' or the normal flow and organization of recog-
nitive processes" (Ludwig 1968:70). Levels of exteroceptive stimula-
tion, either above or below "an optimal Icv-el," as well as an impover-
ishment of varied and diversified environmental stimulation, appear
conducive to the production of altered states of consciousness (Lud-
wig 1968:70). Trance and possession states may be induced by either
a reduction or an increase in exteroceptive stimulation. Sensor^'' depri-
vation is more commonly employed in laboratory studies and in hyp-
nosis (Gill and Brcnman 1966:4-11; 123-126), and sensory overloading
is more commonly used in trancing ceremonies (Lee 1968:49). It has
been further suggested that the effects on the organism of both sensory
deprivation and sensory overloading are similar (Alland 1961:212).

The Hamadsha employ primarily sensory overloading techniques to
induce trance. Auditory overstimulation, which is produced by loud,
monotonous drumming, the droning of the ghita, communal chanting,
hand-clapping, and even the pounding of the male dancers in line, is
the most important technique. Chanting is not as well developed among
the ^amadsha as it is in other Islamic confraternities such as the Rahma-
niyya of Algeria (Haas 1943). With the exception of darkening tiie

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232

THE HAMADSHA

room during the performance of 'Aisha Qandisha's rih, visual stimuli
are not manipulated by the Hamadsha. Jallaba hoods and hair faUing
over the eyes, as well as the effects of rapid dancing, nia\ , however,
serve to reduce or alter the inflow of visual stimuH. The inhalation of
incense can be considered as a means of producing olfactory over-
stimulation. Alterations in gustatory and tactile stimuli — with the ex-
ception of the dancing itself — are not of central importance in the
IHlamadsha ceremonies. Sensory deprivation — quiet and darkness — may
play a role in the induction of trances in the saints' tombs during a
pilgrimage.

Changes m Motor Aethhy

Strict limitatioiis of motor activity facilitate hypnotic trance^ (Gill
and Brenman 1966:6; 126-129), and may be of some significance in
trances in the saints' tombs. The Hamadsha encourage heightened
motor ftctmty in their dancing; the monotonous and stereotyped char-
acter of these dances should not, however, be ignored.

Ideational Deprivation and Thought Confusion

Limitation in the range and variety of thought (Gill and Brenman
1966:6), as well as techniques productive of thought confusion (Erik-
son 1964), play an important role in hypnosis. Chanting, dancing, and
music may also reduce "ideational stimuli." Dance leaders, like the
muqaddim who tried to exorcise the jinn in the 7-year-old girl, often
attempt to confuse the patient. In hypnosis, ideational deprivation is
associated with an attempt to alter bodily awareness. The l^amadsha
do not make any active suggestions with regard to bodily awareness,
but the phenomenology of the 1^ and jidba is well-articulated; it is
well-known to all dancers and devotees. The expectations of the IJz-
madsha may serve a function similar to that of the active suggestions
of the hypnotist.

Rhythmic Stimulation

Attention has been called to the effect of drumming on cerononial
trance induction (Sargant 1964:92). Andrew Neher (1962:151-160)
has noted the similarity between die effects of rhythmic flashing of
light— photic drive — on laboratory subjects and the symptomatology of

* Although many authorities have attempted to equate hypnotic trance with
ceremonial trance, I find rhis approach inadequate. It tends to lay emphasis on
similarities and to blur what may be essential differences. This is not to say that
indncdoa techniqoes for both sates may not be similar.

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APPENDIX

233

tfanceks. They include alterations in perception, tspcdaHy visual* that
m nQt present in the stimulus, kinaesthetic changes such as swaying*
spinmng, and vertigo, tingling and pricking sensations, fatigue, confu-
sion, fear, disgust, anger, disturbances in time sense, halhicinations,
"clinical psychopathic states," and epileptoid seizures. A number of
"predkutators** are known to aid simply rhythmic stimulation in pro-
ducing these effects: irhythms that accompany the main rhythm, rhyth-
mic stimulation of more than one sensory mode, stress, hyperventila-
tion, low blood glucose and adrenalin production resulting from fatigue
and over-exertion. Neher suggests that drumniing has an effect on the
individual which is similar to that of photic driving.

Not only are the symptoms of photic driving similar to those re-
ported by the Hamadsha, but many of the same "precipitators" are
present. Several different drum rhythms are played at once; drumming
is accompanied by dancing (kinaesthetic stimulation); many of the
Hamadsha, especklly the patients, are in stress; hypo- and hyper-
ventilatory techniques are employed; prolonged dancing produces fa-
tigue and in all probability a reduction in blood sugar and an increase
in adrenalin production. The extent to which the rihs of the Hamadsha
correspond to different brain rhythms and induce trance in those
dancers whose brain rhythm "corresponds" to the rhythm of the par-
dcular ntf. being played has yet to be explored.

Special Breathing Techniques

Breathing techniques which either over-oxygenate or under-oxygen-
ate the blood are known to aid in the induction of trance (Haas 1943).
Often they produce paresthetic sensations and visual changes that may
be the result of an increase in carbon dioxide in the lungs and blood-
stream (Alland 1961). Cerebral anoxia is a prominent and constant fac-
tor in precipitating convulsive seizures (Ilarrison et al. 1950:97). Al-
though the Hamadsha have not developed their breathing techniques
to the same extent as orders such as the Rahmanivya have, the dancers
in line do hyperventilate. It is possible that members of the audience
who do not join the line also hypo- and hyperventilate in time to the
music or to the breathing of the dancers. The fact that one of the pro-
dromal symptoms of trance is paresthesia would seem to suggest this.

Drugs

Critics of the Hamadsha and adepts of other brotherhoods sometimes
claim that the Hamadsha's trances are produced by kif (marihuana)
and hashish, but I found no evidence for this whatsoever. In fact, few

CO|^y I lyt auo i.idiCrial

234

THE ^AMADSHA

of the Hamadslu smoked kif at all, and even fewer smoked hashish.
Although one or two other hallncinogenic drags are employed in Mo-
rocco--ihese include nutmeg— only two of my informants had taken
them, and only on one or two occasions.

Danektg

Dancing can result in a state of fatigue and overexertion and a conse-
quent reduction of blood sugar and increase in adrenalin. Hypogly-
cemia is known to produce convulsions, and a certain deteriorated form
of adrenalin— andiochrone— is thought to be hallucinogenic (Hoffer
etal. 1954; Wallace 1956).

Dietary Conditions

The ^amadsha do not follow any dietary restrictions, such as pre-
ceremonial fasting, which might aid in trance induction. In fact, before
b^inning to dance they often drink large quantities of highly sweet-
ened tea. This would tend to raise the level of blood sugar and prevent,
or at least postpone, a hypoglycemic seizure. Neverdidess, some of
the seizures resemble those of insulin shock. This is true also of Balinese
trance seizures (Mead, ^fargaret, personal communication). It is pos-
sible that some of the patients suffer a loss of appetite, but this is not
a typical symptom of the l^Jamadsha patients. Certainly, their diets
merit a detailed examination. Consideration should be given to the rela-
tionship between a low protein diet and calcium metabolism, since hy-
pocalcemia is known to produce convulsions (Wallace 1961).

Heat and Stuffiness

Although heat and stuffiness with a consequent increase in atmos-
pheric carbon dioxide have been considered factors in the induction of
trance (Alland 1961), neither factor appears to be of great significance
ui the case of the IJamadsha. Ceremonies are often held out of doors,
and even those which take place inside are well ventilated.'

Ambiance

The ambiance of the ceremonies plays an important part in trance
induction. The following factors appear to be significant: (1) Group
excitement and overcrowding. (It should be noted that Qamadslu
ceremonies are among the few occasions in which men and women are
not strictly segregated.) (2) Heightened expectation. (3) Theatricality

' Women's quartms do tend to be etaSy, however.

APPENDIX 235

and viQlence. (4) A pemussive atmosphere. (5) Presence of strong
models for trance and mutilation.

Leadership

One of the most significant factors in the induction of hj^nodc
trance is strong, authoritative leadership. Gill and Brenman (196<S:xix-
xx) have defined hypnosis as "a particular kind of regressive process
which may be initiated by sensorimotor-ideational deprivation or by
the stimulation of an archaic relationship to the hypnotist." They found
that when one of these techniques was used, phenomena characteristic
of the ^ther began to appear. Investigators who have been amdous to
equate the ecstatic experiences of the Sufi mystic with hypnotic trance
have emphasized the role of the Sufi master and have considered his
relationship to the adepts as analogous to the transference relationship
between patient and psychotherapist (Shafii 1968). Although the role
of the imaster is of paramount importance in many Islamic brother-
hoods, the muqaddim of a Hamadsha team ^\zys an unimportant role
in the lives of the adepts and devotees during the ceremonies.

Individual Factors

There are probably a number of individual factors which also help
to induce trance. These would include physiological ones such as sugar
metabolism and psychological ones such as stress, anxiety, and emotional
depriva^OQ.

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I
I

I Glossary

^afari: espeoMSSy powerful and terrifying jmm (spirits) .

*ar. Jit, shame; a vow or promise.
arya^z seeWji.

baraka: holiness, blessing, good fortune; a spiritual or miraculous force
that emanates from holy men and places. Bread is a recurrent sym-
bol for baraka. Baraka can be citiicr inherited or achieved.

bidonvtlle: a shanty town. Such shanty towns have grown up around
Mekncs and otiier Moroccan cities since the arrival of the French.

burfpam manifest evidence, proofs often used as a synonym for "mira-
cle" (karama).

debfbai an animal sacrifice.

(ItrbOfti Moroccan money, worth about 20 cents in American money
at the time of this study. There are 100 Moroccan financs to a

dikr. ' a short, rapid invocation.

fatha: a short prayer

foqra (sing., fqir) : members of a zawiya; adepts.
fqih: a Koranic teacher.

ganbrfi a three-stringed guitar, often made from a turtleshell.

gidta: an oboe, played by ghiyyata (sing., gbiyyat). Smaller ones are

used in marriage and circumcision ceremonies; larger ones — gbita

gharbofwiyya — are used in the Hamadsha badra.
gbwal^ (m. sing., ghul; f . sing., ghula) : ogres, ghouls,
goiu/: an hourglass-shaped pottery drum, played by gmowala (sing.,

g^nowal).

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238

TH£ HAMADSHA

boiUyya: gift.

kadrai the ecstatic dance of the yamadsha and other religious brother-
hoods.

^adra gnaimyya-. the last part of the b&dra, in which musical phrases
sdlegedly from the Gnawa are played.

^ (pL, ahival) : state, drcQmstance, time; an ecstatic trance.

Ifatmdsba (m. smg., Hamdushi; f. sing. Hamdmhiyya): Members of
the loosely and divensely organized religious brotherhood known as
at'tariqa ed-liamdushiyya. Followers of Sidi *Ali ben Hamdush
(^Allaliyyin) and Sidi Ahmed Dghughi {Dghughiyyin) are collec-
tively referred to as l^amadsha.

^kbi a chant or litany, usually containmg verses of the Koran.

hiifra: grotto, cave, pit.

l?orm'. a sacred place.

jaivi: incense; benzoin.

jidba: ecstasy; a frenetic trance state.

jmm (m. sing., jim^ f. sing., jinmyya) : devils, imps; spirits; sprites.
khalifa: assistant; assistant to the leader (tnuqaddim) of a mmya.

lila: lit., night; used to refer to a Hamadsha ceremony (sadaqa) which
takes place in the evening and in which the b^dra is performed.

madim: town, dty; specifically, in the text, the old quarter of Meknes.
marabout: see murahit

nusffvoari the leader of a lineage group descended from a saint.
msanmdx supported, sustained by; used in the (lamadsha context with

reference to a special relation^p one has widi a saint.
muffiblrin (m. sing, muinbb) : devotees.

muqaddm: the caretaker of a samt's tomb (qubba)\ the leader of a

Qamadsha lodge or team.
wurabtti a man attached to God. The French word marabautismej a

catchall word for activities associated with the worship of Muslim

saints, is derived from it.
musem: an annual pilgrimage to a saint's tomb.
muttakU and mmoali: both words mean leaning on, or near; used in

the Hamadsha context with reference to a special relationship one

has with 'Aisha Qandisha and other jnun.

mra: a recorder, made from a reed.

qubba: a saint's tomb, usually a squat, white, cubical building with a
domed roof.

iiMMiiiaiiiii

GLOSSARY 239

I
I

ri(t (pi., aryah): lit., air, wind; a musical phrase, played durii^ a
bfdra, which is aaid to be the favorite of a particular jinn and sends
a follower into tnnce;

sadaqa: charity, alms; also a Hamadsha ceremony in which the IbLadia

is danced and a communal meal is served.
Sharif (pi., shurfa): a descendant of the Prophet Muliammad.
sbayatiii: evil spirits, children of the devil {Shitan).
siyyid: a saint; the tomb of a saint.

tabbal: one who plays the snare drum (tabil),
tabi^: the follower of a saint or jinn.

tiSfa: a team; used specifically in the text to refer to a team of bidon-
ville Hamadsha, although it may in fact also be used to refer to the
members of a zsnmya.

tdUtfi an exordst-seer who identifies attacking jnun.

Wiqa: lit., the way, path; a spiritual path, the teachings of a particular
saint. Also used to refer to the religious brotherhoods.

iDali: a saint.

vmlad siyyid: lit., "the cliildren of the saint"; the agnatic descendants
of a saint.

zawiya: lit., a comer; the lodge or meeting place of a religious broth-
erhood. Used in the text to refer to both the meeting place and the
members of an urban l^amadsha team.

i^yara: visit; pilgrimage to a saint's tomb. Also used to r^er to offer-
ings left by a pilgrim at a saint's tomb.

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Copyrighted material

Index

'Abdelhaqq, 32, 40, 41

Abel, Theodora, 202

Abreaction, 219-234

Absinthe, in cures, 122

Abu Medyan, 18, 19, 20

Adepts (foqra): definition of, 75i
and zawiyas, 80, 88^ relationship to
saints, 83^ 186, 226, 226n; social po-
sition of, 85] families of, 8S. See
also Foqra

'Afarit: description of, 135« 136, 112.
5ee also Jnun

*Af rita, *Aisha Qandisha as, 44

Aggression, during trance, 2QQ

Aguza, 113

Ahd, m

Ahidus, 191

*Aisha Qandisha, xiii; description of,
43, 44, 14L 145-146; legends of,
43i 142-146; grotto of. 65, 170, 171.
175, 182; shrines to, 80. 91, 95, 116,
143-144; and zawiya, 80, 98; and
cures, 138, 141, 225, 227; marriage
to, 143-145; commands of, 145,
228; attacks by, 150, 160, 178, 183^
187, 224, 226n; in hadra, 145, 196.
201-202, 204; possession by, 164-
165; and pilgrimages, 169, 171, 121;
dreams of, 174; gifts to, 175, 122;
sacrifices to, 184; as wasp, 201;
transformation of, 226, 229; as ex-
ternalized superego, 229. See also
Jnun

^Allaliyyin, 3; definition of, 75; role
of mizwar, 80; professions of, 86;

ethnic background of, 87; progres-
sive position of, 187. See also
Dghughiyyin; Flamadsha

Alms, 109. See also Sadaqa

Altered states of consciousness, 21L
See also Hal; Jidba; Trance

Amulets: at 'Aisha Qandisha's grotto,
176; disposal of, l&l

Androgyny: and passage of baraka,
53, 54; and male envy of female,
55; unsatisfactory, See also
Feminizadon

Angels: in legendary cycle, 41; con-
fused with jnun, li^

Anxiety reaction, 5, 214

*Ar: and *AIsha Qandisha, 80; defini-
tion of, 159, 166; made by, 176; as
sacrifice, 177; and Sidi 'Ali, l&L
See also Debiha; Dhiya; Sacrifice

Arabs, 7-8; Hilalian, 26

1-Arusi, Sidi Ahmed: 46

Asylum, in saints' tombs, 22

*Awwad, 34-43

Axe (shaqur), 46-47; at musem, 116,
201

'Ayn Kabir: in legends, 32, 34. 37.
38, 43; in pilgrimage, 65, 171. 172.
175: and baraka, 65, 166

Baraka: definition of, 2, 18; curative
powers, 4, IL 166. 167; and saints,
31] passage of, 36, 37, 45, 48, 118-
125, 135. 167-168, 187. 226n; and
women, 48-49; personal, 52, 55.
120; institutional, 52, 55, 120; and

Copy I rial

250

INDEX

feminization, 52^ 228; as symbol,
39j 53, 120j 226] in waters of 'Ayn
Kabir, 63i endowment of, 73-74;
and shantytown teams, 107^ logic
of, 1 19-120; and trance, 121; in
pilgrimages 170, 174; in tuba, 174;
social significance, 219. See also
Saints

Baraka-wealth exchange,
Barbers, ill

Basket, in ceremonies, L8S

Bath: in tomb of Sidi *Ali, 68j in

ceremonies, L88
Beggars, and Hamadsha shrines. III
Bern Jennad, 64
Bcni Mtir, 148

Beni Ouarad, 3^ location of tomb of
Sidi Ahmed, 45^ description, 63-
66; social organization, 66-71; pil-
grimage to, 2d

Beni Rachid, 3i location of tomb of
Sidi *Ali, 37] description, 63-66;
social organization, 66-71; pilgrim-
age to, 96i baths of, 1 M

Ben join (jawi), 138. See also Jawi

Berechid, 111

Bergcr, Peter, 5^6, 7, 213

Berque, Jacques, IM

Bettelheim, Bruno, 51, 222

Bidonville. See Shantytowns

Birth, theories of, 48-49, 49n

Blacks, characteristics associated
with, 85-86

Blad 1-Makhzan, 62

Blessing, cost of at shrine, 123

Blindness, 4

Blood: and baraka, xiv, 50; and
^Aisha Qandisha, 145; effect on

possessed, liS2
Bordj Moulav Omar, 105, IQd
Boualem, 91-96

Bread: in miracles, 37] during musem,
116; in wealth exchange, 118

Breasts, mutilation of, 198n

Brotherhoods, ^iiL 17-18; 20] in
Meknes, 78-79, in Shantytowns,
106-107. See also individual entries

Bukhara, 82

Burhan. See Miracles
Buttermilk, in legends, 40, 41

Camel: in legends, 39] imitation of,

201

Candles, 173. 174, 126

Canonists {^ama)^ 18, in le{?ends, 12

Castration: and passage of baraka,
52] and headslashing, 53] as placa-
tion of *Aisha Qandisha, 227; and
Sidi Ahmed, 228; and women, 229n

Catafalque (darbuz), 64

Cataleptic state, during trance, 129

Catharsis. See Abreaction

Ceremonies, xii-xiv; at zawiya, 97-
98; by shantytown teams, 107, 210-
211; financing, 107, 210-211; com-
parison of zawiya and team, 186-
187, 210; and passage of baraka,
187; preparations for, 187-190;
paraphernalia for, [88] litanies in,
190-192; end of, 209-210; group
support in, 215; cathartic function
of, 214 See also Hadra; Lila; Sa-
daqa

Chanting, during hadra. See Litanies

Charity. See Sadaqa

Circumcision: invitations to, 74] and

attacks by jnun, 140; ritual of, 229n
Conflict, articulation and resolution

of, 222
Couscous, 99, 116. 118
Cowrie shells, in divination, ld2
Crisis reaction, 214
Cult membership: and cures, 5, 218-

2 19; and change in social status, 5^

219. See also Maraboutism
Cures, 4, explanation of, 16<S-168;

during pilgrimages, 169, 170; by

temporary feminization, 22L See

also Therapy

DaflF, 34-43

Dance: description of, xii-xiv, 192-
204, 207-210; in Sufism, 17] fre-
quency of, 96] significance of, 141;
and baraka, 186; women in, 196-
199; men in, 199-204; and trance

INDEX

251

induction, 199-204. See also Hadra;
Musem

Darbala, 34, 41

Darqawiyya, 22

Dates, as sign of welcome, L82

Debiha, ITL See also *Ar; Dhiya;
Sacrifice

Delchaye, Hippolyte, IQ

Depression, 4, 200n

Devotees {nmhibbin), 75i in madina,
89-97; in Shantytowns, 107, 111-
113; organization of 115, 125-128.
See also Muhibbin

Dghughiyyin, 3^ 24^ definition of, 75;
professions of, 86i ethnic back-
ground of, 87i conservative posi-
tion of, 187] hizb of, 12Q

Dhiya, 122. See also 'Ar; Debiiia;
Sacrifice

Diagnostics, 149-150. 153-156; in
symbiotic cures, 159-165

Dikr, 17] definition of, 186, 191; in
madina ceremonies, 191-192; in
shantytown ceremonies, ILL See
also Hizb; Litanies; Wanasa

Dionysius, 78^ 22

Divination: and diagnostics, 162-165;

directed free association in, 163.

See also Diagnostics; Exorcist seer
Dominance, theme in legends, 48
Drawa, 86, 82

Dreams: and saints, 84i ITOj 174, 178;
and jnun, 139, 160; as goal of pil-
grimap, l^O] and cures, 18Q

Drumming, in trance induction, 232

Drums, in ceremonies, ISS^ See also
Daff; Gwal; Tabil

Dyafa, 15fi

Ecstasy (ivajd)^ 12

Ejaculation: during trance, 200; in

sexual intercourse, 22 8n
Epilepsy, and Hamadsha cures, 5
Etiology, 1 34-n 5

Eumenides, ^Visha Qandisha com-
pared to, 226
Evil eye, 149

Exorcism: and fuqaha, 135; and ther-

apeutic theory, 157-159. See also

Symbiotic cures
Exorcist-seer: in Hamadsha cures,

162-165; and pilgrimages, I2i
Explicative mode of respKjnsibility,

150-151

Fatha: definition of xii, 189n; in elec-
tion of muqaddim, 80] by mizwar,
119; in shantytown ceremonies, 2L1

Father: position of family, 8^ 9] rela-
tionship to son, 224

Feminization: in legends, 51-52, 56;
illness as, 224,226; and curing, 227;
and baraka, 228; of saints, 228n

Fig tree: at zawiya, 80] among Chao-
uia, 91] at 'Alsha Qandisha's grotto,
176, 122

Filala, 86, 82

Flag, in madina ceremonies, L88

Followers (tabi^): relation to jnun
84-85, 142. See also Tabi'

Foqra: definition of, 4] general de-
scription of, 83-89; within Hamad-
sha organization, 115; as poor, 118-
119; as transfer agents of baraka,
121; attitude toward mizwar, 124;
position in city, 122. See also
Adepts

Fraja, 4Q

Frogs, in legend, 40, 44

Fuqaha: definition of, 132; control
over jnun, 135. 139. See also Ko-
ranic teacher

Futuhat, 62

Ganbri, 89

Geertz, Qifford, 19-20. US
Genealogies: of foqra, 8] of wulad

siyyid, 8, 86-71; Boualem, 91-92
Ghaib (absence), 154-155
Gharb, 89
al-Ghazzali, 16, IS
al-Ghezwani, 21

Ghita, xi; in hadra, 88, 182; relation
to hal, 88

Ghiyyata, xi, 75] in shantytown

Copyrii '

252

INDEX

teams, 108-110; in therapeutic
practices, 167; during hadra, 2Qi
Ghwal, characteristics of, n^-n7
Gifts (ziyara), to poor, 1 lR-1 19
Gnawa: in Meknes, 79, 110, 204, 209;
considered black, 86; as carers, 135,
158-163; belief in named jnun,
141, 142; relation to Lalla Malika,
147; as exorcist seer, 147, 226; and
'ATsha Qandisha, ill
Gonorrhea, causation, Li4
Grave plots, in zawiyas, 79-80
Grotto of *Aisha Oandisha, 65^ 170.

171, 175, 182
Group support in Hamadsha ther-
apy, 215-216
Guilt, Moroccan feelings of, 227-228
Guwwala, xi

Gwal (drum), 35j played by foqra,
83; in ceremonies, 122

Habus, 67, 68, 21
Hadiyya, 159. See also Sacrifice
Hadra: jierformance of, xii-xiv; audi-
ence reactions to, xiii, 193, 215-
216; financing of, 13, 188. 207, 209;
and foqra, 81, 88; and devotees, 89j
as profession, 107; and fear reac-
tions, 153; as therapy, 164, 167,
169; at saints' tombs, 175; during
pilgrimage, 175, 176-178; and sacri-
fices, 176, 188-189; preparations
for, 187-189; madina performance
of, 187-210; invitations to, 188,
210; litanies during, 190-192; posi-
tion of women in, 189; dance pat-
terns of, 192-193. 194. 195-204. 211;
hot part of, 192-207, 211; trance
patterns of, 195-202, 211; music of,
204-207; cold part, 207-209, 211;
of *ATsha Qandisha, 207, 209^ self-
mutilation in, 208; gnawiyya, 209;
shantytown performances, 210-
211. See also Dance; Headslashing;
Trance

al-Hafyan, 2_L See also Sidi l-Hafvan
Haircutting, at saints' tombs, 83, 84
Hairstyle, among Meknes Hamadsha,

m '

Hajj, 1/59

Hal: in Sufism, 16; legendary origin
of, 34, 43j as experienced by foqra,
83. 85. 206; experienced by ghiy-
yata, 88; and baraka, 167; experi-
enced at saint's tombs, 174; defini-
tion of, 195; and somnambulistic
state, 195n; dance patterns during,
196-198; and cold part of hadra,
208; and hypnotic trance, 222

Hallucinations, 199, 2ii

Hamadsha: definition of, Ij and cur-
ing, 4=5, 6zL 9, 85-87, 132. 133.
135. 141. 167-168. 169. 220, 224;
position in Moroccan society, 7,
110-111. 112. 126-128; spiritual an-
cestry of, 21; trance of, 43, 219;
headslashing, 45; instruments of
mutilation, 36-37; in saints' villages,
73-74. 76; zawiyas of, 79-80; initia-
tory symptoms, 113, 125; musem
of, 115-118; and *ATsha Qandisha,
43, 44, 143-146; therapeutic the-
ories of, 134, 149-166. 166-168,
212-215, 221. 223: and exorcist-
seers, 162; Stereotypes of, 219; feel-
ings of inadequacy of, 22fi

Hamadsha brotherhoods: position of,
XV, Ij 3; organization of, 3-4. 114-
115, 125-128; membership in, 26,
27-29, 87-88; ceremonies of, 27,
85, 97-98, 107, 185-211; and miz-
war, 71, 108, in madina of Meknes,
79-97; election of muqaddim, 80-
82, devotees of, 89-96, 111-112,
125-128; finances of, ?9j in, 118-
125; in shantytowns, 101^ 107-111

Hamadsha saints, 21^ biography of,
22-24; legends of, 30, 32-47; tombs
of, 61, 64-65, 65-66; pilgrimages to,
169-178, 178-184; in cures, 221.
See also Sidi 'Ali ben Hamdush;
Sidi Ahmed Dghughi

Hammu Qiya, 143, 146

Harmal, 146, 122

Hasalban, 148

Hashish, 233-234

Head: symbolic of penis, 53; endow-
ment of baraka, 162

Copyt

INDEX

253

Head-slashing: audience reaction to
xiii; description of, xiii, xiv; in
legends, 35j origin of, 45^ as sym-
bolic castration, 53^ 55^ 227; prepa-
ration for, 84i required by ^Aisha
Qandisha, 143^ during trance, 200-
201. 211, 167; similarity to Balinese
kriss dancing, 200

Heddawa, 79

Henna: and baraka, 120; and Lalla
Mira, 148; as cure for aching bones,
171; used at *Aisha Qandisha's
grotto, 176, 1S2

Hizb: 17^ definition, 80^ example of,
190, recitation of, 190-191

Holy fool (majdub), IIS

Homosexuality: passive, 51j and pas-
sage of baraka, i2

Horm, 69

Hospitality, during musem, 1??-12^
Hufra. See Grotto
Hypocalcemia, 234
Hypoglycemia, 2i4
Hyperventilation, 192, 211
Hypnosis, 231. 232, 211
Hysterical reactions, 97i 111

Ighud, 44
lUergh, 142

Illness: relation to jnun, 96-97 (see
also Jnun); distinction between
physical and mental, 134; taxon-
omy of jinn-caused, 152-157; femi-
nine connotation of, 224, 226- See
also Diagnostics

Images: in therapeutic therapy, 6,
213-214; of psychic state, 223; of
experience, 226n

Immitation of animals: during hadra,
145; camels and pigs, 201

Incense: jnun aversion to, 138. See
also Benzoin; Jawi; Harmal

Initiation: into shantytown teams,
108-109, 113; of camels and pigs,
201

Insanity, explanation for, 150=151
Institutional baraka. See Baraka
Iron: jnun aversion to, 138; in trance
ceremony, 201

ben Isa al-Mokhtari, Sidi M'hamed:
21, 78; mausoleum of, 79^ perform-
ance at tomb of, 22. See also
Isawa; Isawiyya

Isawa, xiv, 26i 78-79; in shanty-
towns, 107^ belief in named jnun,
141, 142; in trance attack, 203;
theriomimetic behavior of, 143

Isawiyya, 2L 29; in Meknes, 78-80.
82i hadra of, 202

Jawi, 138i 145^ 146. See also Benzoin
al-Jazuli, 2Q

Jealousy, among wulad siyyid, 24

Jeanmaire, H^ Li8

Jebel Zerhoun. See Zerhoun

Jidba: definition, 88, 195, 219; and
women, 196; and *Aisha Qandisha,
196; and men, 200; in therapy ex-
planations, 219, 222

Jilala: in Meknes, 79^ in shantytowns,
107; belief in named jnun, 141, 142;
and LaUa Malika, 147; and Lalla
Mira, 148^ and symbiotic cures,
158-163; as exorcist-seers, 162

Jilaliyya, 20^ 26^ hadra similar to
hadra gnawiyya, 2D2

al-Jilani, Moulay Abdelqadar, L8

Jinn. See jnun

Jinniyya, 14, 44; commands of, 222-

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